Computer Graphics

& Animation
By Simran Puri
Overview
• Computer graphics is an art of drawing pictures on computer
screens with the help of programming. It involves
computations, creation, and manipulation of data. In other
words, we can say that computer graphics is a rendering tool
for the generation and manipulation of images.
• Computer graphics is responsible for displaying art and image
data effectively and meaningfully to the consumer. It is also
used for processing image data received from the physical
world, such as photo and video content. Computer graphics
development has had a significant impact on many types of
media and has revolutionized animation, movies, advertising,
video games, and graphic design in general.
Overview
The term computer graphics has been used in a broad sense to
describe "almost everything on computers that is not text or sound".
[3]
Typically, the term computer graphics refers to several different
things:
• the representation and manipulation of image data by a computer
• the various technologies used to create and manipulate images
• methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual
content, see study of computer graphics
Today, computer graphics is widespread. Such imagery is found in
and on television, newspapers, weather reports, and in a variety of
medical investigations and surgical procedures. A well-constructed
graph can present complex statistics in a form that is easier to
understand and interpret. In the media "such graphs are used to
illustrate papers, reports, theses", and other presentation material.[4]
Many tools have been developed to visualize data. Computer-generated imagery
can be categorized into several different types: two dimensional (2D), three
dimensional (3D), and animated graphics. As technology has improved,
3D computer graphics have become more common, but 2D computer graphics
are still widely used.
• Why computer graphics used?
Suppose a shoe manufacturing company want to show the sale of shoes for five
years. For this vast amount of information is to store. So a lot of time and
memory will be needed. This method will be tough to understand by a common
man. In this situation graphics is a better alternative. Graphics tools are charts
and graphs. Using graphs, data can be represented in pictorial form. A picture
can be understood easily just with a single look.
Interactive computer graphics work using the concept of two-way
communication between computer users. The computer will receive signals from
the input device, and the picture is modified accordingly. Picture will be changed
quickly when we apply command.
Applications of Computer Graphics
Computer graphics deals with creation, manipulation and storage
of different type of images and objects.
Some of the applications of computer graphics are:
• Computer Art:
Using computer graphics we can create fine and commercial
art which include animation packages, paint packages. These
packages provide facilities for designing object shapes and
specifying object motion. Cartoon drawing, paintings, logo
design can also be done.
• Computer Aided Drawing:
Designing of buildings, automobile, aircraft is done with the
help of computer aided drawing, this helps in providing
minute details to the drawing and producing more accurate
and sharp drawings with better specifications.
Applications
• Presentation Graphics:
For the preparation of reports or summarising the financial,
statistical, mathematical, scientific, economic data for research
reports, managerial reports, moreover creation of bar graphs,
pie charts, time chart, can be done using the tools present in
computer graphics.
• Entertainment:
Computer graphics finds a major part of its utility in the movie
industry and game industry. Used for creating motion pictures ,
music video, television shows, cartoon animation films. In the
game industry where focus and interactivity are the key
players, computer graphics helps in providing such features in
the efficient way.
Applications
• Education:
Computer generated models are extremely useful for teaching
huge number of concepts and fundamentals in an easy to
understand and learn manner. Using computer graphics many
educational models can be created through which more interest
can be generated among the students regarding the subject.
• Training:
Specialised system for training like simulators can be used for
training the candidates in a way that can be grasped in a short
span of time with better understanding. Creation of training
modules using computer graphics is simple and very useful.
Applications
• Visualisation:
Today the need of visualise things have increased drastically,
the need of visualisation can be seen in many advance
technologies , data visualisation helps in finding insights of the
data , to check and study the behaviour of processes around us
we need appropriate visualisation which can be achieved
through proper usage of computer graphics
• Image Processing:
Various kinds of photographs or images require editing in
order to be used in different places. Processing of existing
images into refined ones for better interpretation is one of the
many applications of computer graphics.
Applications
• Graphical User Interface:
The use of pictures, images, icons, pop-up menus, graphical
objects helps in creating a user friendly environment where
working is easy and pleasant, using computer graphics we can
create such an atmosphere where everything can be automated
and anyone can get the desired action performed in an easy
fashion.
These are some of the applications of computer graphics due to
which it’s popularity has increased to a huge extend and will keep
on increasing with the progress in technology.
Interactive and Passive Graphics
(a) Non-Interactive or Passive Computer Graphics:
In non-interactive computer graphics, the picture is produced on
the monitor, and the user does not have any controlled over the
image, i.e., the user cannot make any change in the rendered
image. One example of its Titles shown on T.V.
Non-interactive Graphics involves only one-way communication
between the computer and the user, User can see the produced
image, and he cannot make any change in the image.
(b) Interactive Computer Graphics:
In interactive Computer Graphics user have some controls over
the picture, i.e., the user can make any change in the produced
image. One example of it is the ping-pong game.
Interactive Computer Graphics require two-way communication
between the computer and the user. A User can see the image and
make any change by sending his command with an input device.
Advantages:
1. Higher Quality
2. More precise results or products
3. Greater Productivity
4. Lower analysis and design cost
5. Significantly enhances our ability to understand data and to
perceive trends.
• Properties of Video Monitor:
1. Persistence: Persistence is the duration of phosphorescence.
Different kinds of phosphors are available for use in CRT. Besides
color, a major difference between phosphor in their persistence how
they continue to emit light after the electron beam is removed.
2. Resolution: Use to describe the number of pixels that are used on
display image.
3. Aspect Ratio: It is the ratio of width to its height. Its measure is unit
in length or number of pixels.
Aspect Ratio =Width / height
Display Processor:
It is interpreter or piece of hardware that converts display processor code into
pictures. It is one of the four main parts of the display processor
Parts of Display Processor
1. Display File Memory
2. Display Processor
3. Display Generator
4. Display Console
Display File Memory: It is used for generation of the picture. It is used for
identification of graphic entities.
Display Controller:
5. It handles interrupt
6. It maintains timings
7. It is used for interpretation of instruction.
Display Generator:
8. It is used for the generation of character.
9. It is used for the generation of curves.
Display Console: It contains CRT, Light Pen, and Keyboard and deflection
system.
Display Devices:
The most commonly used display device is a video monitor. The
operation of most video monitors based on CRT (Cathode Ray
Tube). The following display devices are used:
• Refresh Cathode Ray Tube
• Random Scan and Raster Scan
• Color CRT Monitors
• Direct View Storage Tubes
• Flat Panel Display
• Lookup Table
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):
CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube. CRT is a technology used in
traditional computer monitors and televisions. The image on
CRT display is created by firing electrons from the back of the
tube of phosphorus located towards the front of the screen.
Once the electron heats the phosphorus, they light up, and they
are projected on a screen. The color you view on the screen is
produced by a blend of red, blue and green light.
Components of CRT:
1. Electron Gun: Electron gun consisting of a series of elements,
primarily a heating filament (heater) and a cathode. The electron gun
creates a source of electrons which are focused into a narrow beam
directed at the face of the CRT.
2. Control Electrode: It is used to turn the electron beam on and off.
3. Focusing system: It is used to create a clear picture by focusing the
electrons into a narrow beam.
4. Deflection Yoke: It is used to control the direction of the electron
beam. It creates an electric or magnetic field which will bend the electron
beam as it passes through the area. In a conventional CRT, the yoke is
linked to a sweep or scan generator. The deflection yoke which is
connected to the sweep generator creates a fluctuating electric or
magnetic potential.
5. Phosphorus-coated screen: The inside front surface of every CRT is
coated with phosphors. Phosphors glow when a high-energy electron
beam hits them. Phosphorescence is the term used to characterize the
light given off by a phosphor after it has been exposed to an electron
beam.
Working of Cathode Ray Tube
• The electron beam controls the working of Cathode Ray Tube.
The electron gun generates an electron beam of high intensity
when it is connected to high voltage. When the electron beam
emits from the electron gun it passes through a pair of
electrostatic and magnetic deflection coil which is on the neck
of the electron gun. These coils are responsible for the
horizontal and vertical movement of the beam. This beam falls
on the screen and creates phosphorescence. This is the working
of Cathode Ray Tube.
Random Scan and Raster Scan
Display:
Random Scan Display:
Random Scan System uses an electron beam which operates like
a pencil to create a line image on the CRT screen. The picture is
constructed out of a sequence of straight-line segments. Each
line segment is drawn on the screen by directing the beam to
move from one point on the screen to the next, where its x & y
coordinates define each point. After drawing the picture. The
system cycles back to the first line
and design all the lines of the image 30 to 60 time each second.
The process is shown in fig:
Random-scan monitors are also known as vector displays or
stroke-writing displays or calligraphic displays.
Advantages:
1. A CRT has the electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen where an
image is to be drawn.
2. Produce smooth line drawings.
3. High Resolution
Disadvantages:
4. Random-Scan monitors cannot display realistic shades scenes.
Raster Scan Display:
A Raster Scan Display is based on intensity control of pixels in the form of a
rectangular box called Raster on the screen. Information of on and off pixels is
stored in refresh buffer or Frame buffer. Televisions in our house are based on
Raster Scan Method. The raster scan system can store information of each pixel
position, so it is suitable for realistic display of objects. Raster Scan provides a
refresh rate of 60 to 80 frames per second.
Frame Buffer is also known as Raster or bit map. In Frame Buffer the positions are
called picture elements or pixels. Beam refreshing is of two types. First is
horizontal retracing and second is vertical retracing. When the beam starts from the
top left corner and reaches the bottom right scale, it will again return to the top left
side called at vertical retrace. Then it will again more horizontally from top to
bottom call as horizontal retracing shown in fig:
Types of Scanning or travelling of beam
in Raster Scan
1. Interlaced Scanning
2. Non-Interlaced Scanning
In Interlaced scanning, each horizontal line of the screen is traced from top to
bottom. Due to which fading of display of object may occur. This problem can
be solved by Non-Interlaced scanning. In this first of all odd numbered lines
are traced or visited by an electron beam, then in the next circle, even number
of lines are located.
For non-interlaced display refresh rate of 30 frames per second used. But it
gives flickers. For interlaced display refresh rate of 60 frames per second is
used.
Advantages:
3. Realistic image
4. Million Different colors to be generated
5. Shadow Scenes are possible.
Disadvantages:
6. Low Resolution
7. Expensive
Differentiate between Random and
Raster Scan Display:
Random Scan Raster Scan
1. It has high Resolution 1. Its resolution is low.
2. It is more expensive 2. It is less expensive
3. Any modification if needed is easy 3. Modification is tough

4. Solid pattern is tough to fill 4.Solid pattern is easy to fill

5. Refresh rate depends or resolution 5. Refresh rate does not depend on the
picture.
6. Only screen with view on an area is 6. Whole screen is scanned.
displayed.
7. Beam Penetration technology come 7. Shadow mark technology came under
under it. this.
8. It does not use interlacing method. 8. It uses interlacing

9. It is restricted to line drawing 9. It is suitable for realistic display.

applications
Random-Scan Display Processors:
• Input in the form of an application program is stored in the system
memory along with graphics package. Graphics package translates
the graphic commands in application program into a display file
stored in system memory. This display file is then accessed by the
display processor to refresh the screen. The display processor cycles
through each command in the display file program. Sometimes the
display processor in a random-scan is referred as Display Processing
Unit / Graphics Controller.
ADVANTAGES:
• Higher resolution as compared to raster scan display.
• Produces smooth line drawing.
• Less Memory required.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Realistic images with different shades cannot be drawn.
• Colour limitations
LCD (Liquid Crystal
Display)
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) is a type of flat panel display which
uses liquid crystals in its primary form of operation. LEDs have a
large and varying set of use cases for consumers and businesses, as
they can be commonly found in smartphones, televisions,
computer monitors and instrument panels.
LCDs were a big leap in terms of the technology they replaced,
which include light-emitting diode (LED) and gas-plasma displays.
LCDs allowed displays to be much thinner than cathode ray tube (
CRT) technology. LCDs consume much less power than LED and
gas-display displays because they work on the principle of
blocking light rather than emitting it. Where an LED emits light,
the liquid crystals in an LCD produces an image using a backlight.
As LCDs have replaced older display technologies, LCDs have
begun being replaced by new display technologies such as OLEDs.
How LCDs work
A display is made up of millions of pixels. The quality of a display
commonly refers to the number of pixels; for example, a 4K display is
made up of 3840 x2160 or 4096x2160 pixels. A pixel is made up of
three subpixels; a red, blue and green—commonly called RGB. When
the subpixels in a pixel change color combinations, a different color
can be produced. With all the pixels on a display working together, the
display can make millions of different colors. When the pixels are
rapidly switched on and off, a picture is created.
The way a pixel is controlled is different in each type of display; CRT,
LED, LCD and newer types of displays all control pixels differently.
In short, LCDs are lit by a backlight, and pixels are switched on and
off electronically while using liquid crystals to rotate polarized light.
A polarizing glass filter is placed in front and behind all the pixels, the
front filter is placed at 90 degrees. In between both filters are the
liquid crystals, which can be electronically switched on and off.
• LCDs are made with either a passive matrix or an active
matrix display grid. The active matrix LCD is also known as a
thin film transistor (TFT) display. The passive matrix LCD has
a grid of conductors with pixels located at each intersection in
the grid. A current is sent across two conductors on the grid to
control the light for any pixel. An active matrix has a transistor
located at each pixel intersection, requiring less current to
control the luminance of a pixel. For this reason, the current in
an active matrix display can be switched on and off more
frequently, improving the screen refresh time.
• Some passive matrix LCD's have dual scanning, meaning that
they scan the grid twice with current in the same time that it
took for one scan in the original technology. However, active
matrix is still a superior technology out of the two.
Morphing:
• Morphing is the Process of converting of an Image to another
Image. The Term “Morphing” comes from the word
“Metamorphosis”. The Meaning of Metamorphosis is
basically a Great Change. Using Motion pictures and adding
some animations to already existed image, we can create a
new Image. Generally Morphing is used to illustrate one
person to another person.Morphing techniques and process
are provided below.
Morphing process:
• i).Morphing is basically done by matching image shapes with color
interpolations.
• ii).Morphing cannot be done directly one image to another image within
one step. So its takes gradual steps.
• iii).There are two kinds of Images in MORPHING process. They are
• A).Source Image (Very first Object)
• B).Destination Image (Very last Image)
• iv).So Morphing process goes in several steps by applying steps
gradually
• v).For the first process, the Source image is gradually distorted and
ultimately this Source Image gets vanished as we are looking for the
target Image (Destination Image)
• vi).Kindly observe the following figure carefully. If you have observed
the objects from left side are similar to the Left most Image. And
likewise the objects from right side are similar to the Rightmost Image.
(As distortion is taking place)
Morphing Methodologies:
• Generally Morphing Techniques are classified in to Two Kinds. They are,
• i).Feature Based Methods (In this method, the feature of Image is specified
by set of points or as a line segments)
• ii).Mesh Based Methods (In this method, the features of Image is specified
by a non Uniform mesh)
Morphing Mappings:
• Morphing Mappings are broadly classified in to Two Categories.
i).Forward Mapping:
• In this Mapping, first it gets scanned through the Source image pixel by
pixel
• And then it copies the same to correct position in the final (Destination)
image
ii).Reverse Mapping:
• In this mapping, it starts from the and gets scanned through the
Destination image pixel by pixel
What are Fractals?
Fractals are very complex pictures generated by a computer from
a single formula. They are created using iterations. This means
one formula is repeated with slightly different values over and
over again, taking into account the results from the previous
iteration.
Fractals are used in many areas such as −
• Astronomy − For analyzing galaxies, rings of Saturn, etc.
• Biology/Chemistry − For depicting bacteria cultures,
Chemical reactions, human anatomy, molecules, plants,
• Others − For depicting clouds, coastline and borderlines, data
compression, diffusion, economy, fractal art, fractal music,
landscapes, special effect, etc.
Generation of Fractals
• Fractals can be generated by repeating the same shape over
and over again as shown in the following figure. In
figure a� shows an equilateral triangle. In figure b�, we can
see that the triangle is repeated to create a star-like shape. In
figure c�, we can see that the star shape in figure b� is
repeated again and again to create a new shape.
• We can do unlimited number of iteration to create a desired
shape. In programming terms, recursion is used to create such
shapes.
Types of Fractal
There are three types of fractals:
• Self-similar: These fractals have parts as a scaled-down
version of the entire object. So if we scale up from a smaller
part of the fractal, we will scale up to the whole object.
• Self Affine: It has parts formed with different scaling
parameters in different coordinate directions. For example in
the direction, the scaling may be different from that t of y-
direction. So the fractal will not be exactly similar in all
directions.
• Invariant: Formed with nonlinear transformations. The
smaller and bigger objects in the fractal are different.
What is digitization?
Digitization is the process of converting information into a digital format. In this
Format, information is organized into discrete units of data called bits that can be
separately addressed, usually in multiple-bit groups called bytes.
This is the binary data that computers and many devices with computing capacity,
such as digital cameras and digital hearing aids, can process.
How is information digitized?
• Digitizing information typically involves one or more of the following
processes:
• Scanning. Using a scanner to capture an image, which can be an image of
text, and convert it to an image file, such as a bitmap.
• Optical character recognition (OCR). An OCR program analyzes a text
image for light and dark areas to identify each alphabetic letter or numeric
digit, and converts each character into an ASCII code.
• Recording. Capturing a sound or image on a recording medium, such as
magnetic tape or disks, and converting it using an analog-to-digital converter.
• Sampling. Sampling measures the amplitude, or signal strength, of an analog
waveform at evenly spaced time markers and represents the samples as
numerical values for input as digital data.
The history of digitization
• Digitization gained popularity in the late 20th century with
the advent of PCs and the internet. These technologies made
it possible to convert many different forms of information,
such as text, images, audio and video, into digital forms.
• The process of digitization has revolutionized communication
and commerce and has had a profound effect on nearly every
aspect of modern life.
Examples of digitization
• Here are some common examples of information that can undergo
digitization:
• text, such as books, articles and contracts;
• images, such as photos, artwork and medical images;
• audio, such as music, speeches and interviews;
• video, such as movies, TV shows and webcam footage; and
• data, such as numeric data from sensors, financial data and weather data.
The benefits of digitization
There are many advantages to digitization. Digital information can be easily
stored, accessed and shared. This is especially important in today's business
world, where information needs to be quickly and easily accessible by
employees, customers and partners.
Another advantage is that digital information can be manipulated more easily
than analog information. This means that businesses can more easily analyze
and use data to make better decisions.
What is 3D modelling?
Let’s start with a 3D modelling definition. 3D modelling is the process
of creating three-dimensional representations of an object or a surface.
3D models are made within computer-based 3D modelling software,
which we’ll explore a little later.
During the 3D modelling process, you can determine an object’s size,
shape, and texture. The process works with points, lines, and polygons
to create the 3D shapes within the software.
How does 3D modelling work?
A 3D model is essentially made up of vertices, which come together to
form a mesh and act as the core of the 3D model. Each point on the
model can be manipulated to change the shape. By using coordinate
data, the software identifies the location of each vertical and horizontal
point, all relative to a reference point.
The most common way to begin making a 3D model is to start with a
basic shape – a cube, box, sphere, or whatever you think is best suited.
From your starter shape, you can start moulding and refining it into
what you desire.
What is 3D modelling used for?
• Many industries utilise 3D modelling for a range of projects; there
are likely loads of 3D modelled items we use without even
realising its involvement. With 3D modelling, the opportunities
are endless. It’s a truly versatile medium that can be used for an
array of different areas. Let’s explore some common uses of 3D
modelling:
Game development
• Perhaps the most commonly known use for 3D modelling is game
development. 3D models are used to create characters, settings,
props, and entire worlds within video games. The key to any good
game is immersion, and 3D modelling is a great way to build
immersive experiences.
• 3D modelling is particularly important within the world of virtual
reality gaming, which is an extremely exciting sector. Virtual
reality games fully immerse you in the game experience, creating
entire three-dimensional worlds to dive into.
3D printing
• It makes sense that 3D printing would not be possible without 3D modelling.
3D printing lets 3D models become physical objects which can be used for
anything you set your mind to. It’s a lot more than just miniature figures and
toys from at-home printers; there are endless useful ways to utilise 3D printing.
• As we discovered in our 3D printing in healthcare open step, 3D printing is
frequently used within healthcare which has life-changing effects. It has been
used to make custom-built prosthetics and implants and to create anatomically
correct models for surgical planning.
Architecture
• Another common use of 3D modelling is architecture. 3D modelling lets
architects plan beyond the traditional method of hand-drawn building plans. As
technology has evolved, we’re now able to conjure up a three-dimensional
visual of a building before it is fully built.
• This is extremely useful for envisioning the final product during pitches or to
other stakeholders. 3D modelling can reveal potential issues with building
structures that 2D plans could not show and is key to modern building design.
Animation
• Once you have a 3D model, it can be completely rigged and animated –
which comes in very handy for animation. Animators use 3D models for a
clean, seamless effect when creating movies and TV shows. Throughout the
process, 3D modelling is used to create scenery, characters, props, and much
more.
• Most animated movies will utilise some kind of 3D programming software.
Being able to animate isn’t exclusive to animation, however. It also comes in
handy for special effects within movies, amongst other things.
• If this branch of the 3D modelling world interests you, check out our
Explore Animation course.
Product design
• Many of the products we see around us in our day-to-day lives would have
had some 3D modelling involvement. By creating a virtual 3D model of your
product before it is physically created, we can pinpoint any errors and adjust
the product accordingly. Even being able to see the object’s size relative to
other products can make a huge difference in the production process.
What is Dithering?
Dithering is a technique to convert a grayscale image to black
and white. It is used to create an illusion of the color which is
actually not present. Dithering is done by randomly arranging
the pixels.
• Dither is applied in the form of noise to prevent quantization
error.
• Dither is commonly used in the processing of both digital
audio and video data. It is the last stage of mastering audio to
a CD.
There are three types of dithering
methods:
1. Random dither
2. Ordered dither
3. Error diffusion dither
Random dither
• In random dither, errors appear as a noise.
Ordered dither
• In ordered dither, error occurs randomly in the form of
pseudo.
Error diffusion dither
• In error diffusion dither, error occurs over in the neighbor
pixel.