Introduction to Electrical

Machines(ECEG-3151)

Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology (AAiT)
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Instructor: Awraris Getachew
 Basic Principles of Electrical
Machines
Introduction
Basic Laws of Magnetic Theory
Magnetic Circuit Analysis
Properties of Magnetic Material
Magnetic Core Losses
Principles of Electromechanical Energy conversion
Force and Torque in Magnetic Field System
Singly excited-systems

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Introduction
Electric Machine: a device which converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy or vice versa.
It is a general term for electric motors and electric
generators and other electromagnetic machines(like
transformers) Electrical Magnetic Mechanical
Electric motor: Energy Energy Energy

Mechanical Magnetic Electrical

Electric generator: Energy Energy Energy

Electrical Magnetic Electrical

Transformer: Energy Energy Energy

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Cont’d…

Electric generator
Electric motor

Transformer

Electrical Machines 4
Basic Laws of Magnetic Theory
Maxwell’s equations: are useful for describing
magnetic properties, but exact analytical solutions are
difficult to be obtained
However, various simplifying assumptions can be
made to attain useful engineering solutions
Equations: Ampere's Law
Gauss's Law
Faraday's Law

Sources of magnetic filed:  Current carrying conductor

 Permanent magnets

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Symbols

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Cont’d…
Gauss’s law says magnetic flux density B is conserved;
i.e.no net flux enters or leaves a closed surface; or
equivalent to there exist no monopole magnetic-field
sources
Other relations:

Where N is the number of turns of the coil

is the mmf (magneto motive force) acting on a magnetic circuit
I is the excitation current 7
 Magnetic Circuit Analysis
Magnetic circuits
 Assumptions:
 Magnetic flux density B
is uniform across the cross
section of the core
 μr is a known constant
(actually, it varies appreciably
with B) A simple magnetic circuit
Where∅𝐶is the flux in the core and
the flux density in the core.

Therefore, we obtain: =
Hc is the average magnitude of H in the core; its direction can be found by
the right-hand rule 8
Cont’d…
Magnetic circuit with air gap:
If the air-gap g is much smaller than the dimensions of
the adjacent core faces
the magnetic flux φ
will follow the path defined
by the core
Fig 1: A simple magnetic circuit with an
air gap

Define reluctance ℜ of the core and the air gap

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Cont’d…
Analogy between electric and magnetic circuits
Assuming magnetic flux φc as the “current”,
the magnetomotive force =Ni as the“emf of a voltage
source”, and
Rc=lc/(µcAc) (magnetic reluctance) as the “resistance” in
the magnetic circuit, then
we have an analog of Ohm’s law in electrical circuit theory.

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Cont’d…

Table: Analogy between electrical and magnetic circuit theory

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Cont’d…
 Magnetic Circuit Laws
In general, magnetic circuits can consist
of multiple elements in series and/or
parallel
KVL analogy (Kirchhoff’s mmf law)

KCL analogy(Kirchhoff’s flux law)

𝑅 𝐶 ≪ 𝑅𝑔

For example for fig. 1 the mmf can be written as

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Cont’d…

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14
Air-gap fringing fields and leakage flux
Practically, field lines “fringe” outward
somewhat as they cross the air gap
This is called fringing effect, which
equivalently increases the effective
cross-sectional area Ag of the air gap
(Ag > Ac) Fig. fringing effect
 Providing this fringing effect is not excessive the
magnetic circuit concept remains applicable(fringing
effect is neglected)
i.e
 Leakage flux is defined as the magnetic flux which
does not follow the particularly intended path in a
magnetic circuit.
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cont’d….
A Magnetic Circuit with
Reluctances in Series and Parallel

Q.1 Find the flux density in each gap

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cont’d…

rule

and =

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Cont’d…
In general;
 Total reluctance of series circuit

 Total reluctance of parallel circuit

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FLUX LINKAGE, INDUCTANCE, AND ENERGY
Flux linkage: A magnetic field going through a coil of wire
has a property known as flux linkage
Faraday’s law : Electric current is only induced in a coil of
wire if the magnetic field is moving relative to the coil
By Faraday’s law:

where λ= Nφ is the flux linkage; e is induced voltage or elelctromotive

force(emf)

 The direction of the induced voltage is such that the induced current
would oppose the change of flux linkage(Lenz's Law) 19
Cont’d…
Inductance
 For magnetic circuits composed of constant magnetic-
permeability materials, we can define inductance L as:

 If the reluctance of the core is negligible compared to

that of the air gap, the inductance is:

 Inductance is measured in henrys(H) or Wb-turns/A

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Magnetic circuit with two windings
 the mmf acting on the magnetic circuit is given by the net ampere
turns of both windings

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Cont’d…

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Energy in magnetic materials

For a single-
winding system
of constant
inductance

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Properties of Magnetic Materials
Magnetic materials are used to
 Obtain large magnetic flux densities with relatively low
mmf
 Constrain and direct magnetic fields in well-defined Paths
Ferromagnetic materials are composed of iron and alloys
of iron with Co, W, Ni, Al, and other metals are the most
magnetic materials
Ferromagnetic materials are found to be composed of a
large number of domains, i.e., regions in which the
magnetic moments of all the atoms are parallel
 In an unmagnetized sample of material, the domain
magnetic moments are randomly oriented, and the net
resulting magnetic flux in the material is zero. 24
Cont’d…

(a) a piece of ferromagnetic

(b) the domain poles
material which is not
aligned with an external
magnetized, where the
magnetizing force (H).
domain poles are not
aligned;

 When an external magnetizing force is applied to the material,

the magnetic flux density increases and the material is said to be
fully saturated
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 Cont’d…
In the absence of an externally applied magnetizing force, the
domain magnetic moments naturally align along certain
directions associated with the crystal structure of the domain,
known as axes of easy magnetization.
when the applied field is reduced to zero they will retain a net
magnetization component along the applied field direction.
It is this effect which is responsible for the phenomenon
known as magnetic hysteresis.

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cont’d…
Magnetic materials have nonlinear B-H relations and
may be saturated at higher magnetic field intensity
B-H relations are multi-valued and have magnetic
hysteresis effects

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Cont’d…
The B-H curves are obtained by cyclically applying
sinusoidal magnetizing force of different magnitudes
on the material
DC (normal) magnetization curve is formed by
plotting the locus of the maximum values of B-H
curves at the tips of the hysteresis loops

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Cont’d…
Hysteresis
Hysteresis
The magnetization curve is not fully reversible
Remanent flux (Br)
residual flux density when
applied mmf is reduced
to zero
Coercive force (Hc)
H needed to force
the flux to return to zero
 Saturation flux (Bsat)
Fig. Hysteresis loop

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AC excitation

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Permanent Magnets

 This material is characterized by a large residual flux

density (remanent magnetization, ) and a large value of
coercivity, Hc
 Described by demagnetization curves (the part of
hysteresis loop in the second quadrant)
 The significance of remanent magnetization is that it
can produce magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit in the
absence of external excitation (such as winding
currents)

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‘.

Permanent Magnets

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Cont’d…

 Materials which make good permanent magnets are characterized by

larger values of coercivity (Hc). Normally given in kA/m
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Cont’d…
permanent magnet of a uniform cross sectional area of
Am and a length lm. The demagnetization curve of the
magnet is a straight line with a coercive force of Hc and
a remanent flux density of Br as shown below.

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Cont’d…
The demagnetization curve can be expressed analytically as

where µm=Br/Hc is the permeability of the permanent

magnet
The magnetic “voltage drop” across the magnet can be
expressed as

Where is the reluctance and the

magnetomotive force (“voltage source”) of the magnet

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36
Cont’d…

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Magnetic Core Losses
Part of the exciting current energy is lost as heat in the core;
the rest appears as reactive power stored in the magnetic
field
Two loss(core losses) mechanisms are associated with time-
varying fluxes:
 heating associated with induced current in the core
material, and the current is commonly referred as eddy
current(eddy current loss)
 Hysteretic nature of magnetic material
(hysteresis loss)

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Cont’d…
Eddy current
 where a rectangular core of magnetic material is supplied with
sinusoidal source, exciting current flowing will be sinusoidal too
 Since the magnetic material is conducting by nature(say iron)
circulating current known as eddy current will cause

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Cont’d…
Magnetic structures are usually built of thin
sheets of laminations of the magnetic material
to reduce eddy current
Eddy current loss= =

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Cont’d…
Hysteresis Loss
 For transformers or inductors,
a time-varying excitation will cause
the magnetic material to undergo
a cyclic B-H variation
 The energy input W to the magnetic
core in a single cycle is:

 The corresponding hysteresis losses are proportional to the area of the hysteresis
loop and the total material volume

3
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 / 𝑚

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 Principles of Electromechanical Energy
Conversion
Electromechanical devices are developed for energy conversion
between electrical and mechanical forms,
It can be divided into three categories:
 Transducers (for measurement and control)
These devices transform the signals of different forms.
Examples are microphones, pickups, and speakers.
 Force producing devices (linear motion devices)
These devices produce forces mostly for linear motion drives,
such as relays, solenoids (linear actuators), and electromagnets.
 Continuous energy conversion equipment
These devices operate in rotating mode, such as generator and
motor
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 Relay

Acoustic Guitar Pickup

Solenoid

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Energy Conversion Process

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Induced emf in Electromechanical Systems
When a conductor that moves at a velocity v having length l
placed is a uniform magnetic field of flux density B, the induced
emf in the conductor can be determined by

Force and Torque on a Current

Carrying Conductor
The force on a moving particle
of electric charge q in a magnetic field is given as

A conductor of length l, carrying current I is placed in a uniform

magnetic field, the force becomes

In a rotating system, the torque about an axis can be

calculated by where r is the radius vector from
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the axis towards the conductor
FORCES AND TORQUES IN MAGNETIC FIELD SYSTEMS
Lorentz Force Law:
F  q (E  v  B )
Gives the F on a particle of charge q in the presence of
electric and magnetic fields
F  q ( v  B)
 In pure magnetic systems :
The direction of the force is always perendicular to the
direction of both the particle motion and that of the
magnetic field
Very few problems can be solved using Lorentz force, where
current-carrying elements and simple structures exist.
 Most electromechanical-energy-conversion devices contain
magnetic material and forces can not be calculated from
Lorentz force.
 Thus, We will use ENERGY METHOD based on conservation
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Force and Torque Calculation from Energy and Co-energy
Lossless system
Electrical terminals: e and i
Mechanical terminals: ffld and x
Losses separated from energy storage
.
mechanism

Energy balance equation is written for motor action below

Energy input  Mechanical   Increase in   Energy 
 from electric    energy    energy stored   converted 
       
 sources   output  in magnetic field   to heat 

d Welec  d Wmech  d W fld

d Welec : Differenti al electrical energy input
d Wmech : Differenti al mechanical energy output
d W fld : Differenti al change in magnetic stored energy
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Electromechanical Energy Conversion
Analogy

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A Singly Excited Linear Actuator
Singly excited magnetic system is one which has only
one source of excitation,
At a certain time instant t, we record
that
─ the terminal voltage of excitation
winding is v,
─ the excitation winding current i,
─ the position of the movable
plunger x, and
the force acting on the plunger F

 After a time interval dt, we notice that the plunger has moved for
a distance dx under the action of the force F
 The mechanical work done by the force acting on the plunger during
this time interval is thus

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Cont’d…
The amount of electrical energy that has been
transferred into the magnetic field and converted into
the mechanical work is

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Cont’d…
 Flux linkage and current are linearly related,inductance depends solely on
the geometry and hence on the armature position x,
  L( x) i
 The energy stored in a magnetic field can be expressed as

 the above expression becomes

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DETERMINATION OF MAGNETIC FORCE AND
TORQUE FROM COENERGY
In the diagram below it is shown that magnetic energy is equivalent to the
area above the magnetization or curve

magnetic energy

coenergy

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Cont’d…
.

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The singly excited linear actuator mentioned above
Singly Excited Rotating Actuator

becomes a singly excited rotating actuator if the linearly

movable plunger is replaced by a rotor

For a system with rotating mechanical terminal

F T x 
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Cont’d…

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 Example 1:

Calculate the force acting on the plunger of a

linear actuator discussed in the previous
section.

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Cont’d…
Solution
permeability of the magnetic core of the actuator is infinite, and hence
the system can be treated as magnetically linear
Self inductance of the excitation winding can be given as

Therefore, the force acting on the plunger is

 The minus sign of the force indicates that the direction of the force is to reduce
the displacement so as to reduce the reluctance of the air gaps.

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 Example 2
Figure below shows a relay made of infinitely-permeable magnetic
material with a moveable plunger (infinitely-permeable material).
The height of the plunger is much greater than air gap length
(h>>g).
Calculate the magnetic storage energy Wf as a function of plunger
position ( 0< x <d) for N = 1000 turns, g = 2 mm, d= 0.15 m, = 0.1
m and i = 10 A.

b)Pg 121/
Fgrld

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.
.

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 Example 3
For the relay below, find the force on the plunger as
a function of x when the coil is driven by a controller
which produces a current as a function of x of the
form x
i ( x)  I 0   A
d 

Fitzgerald Example 3.5 60

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 Example 4
The magnetic circuit below consists of a single-coil stator
and an oval rotor. Because the air-gap is nonuniform, the
coil inductance varies with rotor angular position,
measured between the magnetic axis of the stator coil and
the major axis of the rotor, as
L( )  L0  L2 cos (2 )

where where L0=10.6 mH and L2=2.7 mH. Note the second-

harmonic variation of inductance with rotor angle θ.
Find the torque as a function of ϴ for a coil current of 2 A.

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Cont’d…

63
Example 5

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