Predicates and Quantifiers

Section Summary
Predicates
Variables
Quantifiers
Universal Quantifier
Existential Quantifier
Negating Quantifiers
De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers
Translating English to Logic
Propositional Logic Not Enough
“He is a college student” is not a statement because
it may be either true or false depending on the value of
the pronoun he.
“x + y is greater than 0” is not a statement
because its truth value depends on x and y
Propositional Logic Not Enough
Propositional logic, cannot adequately express the
meaning of all statements in mathematics, in Computer
science and in natural language. For example, suppose
that we know that
Every computer connected to the university network is
functioning properly.
We cannot translate it in the propositional logic
Propositional Logic Not Enough
Likewise,
If we have:
“All men are mortal.”
“Socrates is a man.”
no rules of propositional logic allow us to conclude the
truth of the statement

“Socrates is mortal”
Introducing Predicate Logic
We will introduce a more powerful type of logic
called predicate logic.
To understand predicate logic, we first need to
introduce the concept of a predicate. Afterward, we
will introduce the notion of quantifiers.
 Predicate
A predicate is a sentence that contains a finite
number of variables and becomes a statement
when specific values are substituted for the
variables.
The domain of a predicate variable is the set of all
values that may be substituted in place of the
variable.
Example: x > 3
We can denote the statement “x is greater than 3”
by P(x),
Once a value has been assigned to the variable x, the
statement P(x) becomes a proposition and has a
truth value
Introducing Predicate Logic
Predicate logic uses the following new features:
Variables: x, y, z
Predicates: P(x), M(x)
Quantifiers (to be covered in a few slides):
Propositional functions are a generalization of
propositions.
They contain variables and a predicate, e.g., P(x)
Variables can be replaced by elements from their
domain.
Propositional Functions
Propositional functions become propositions (and have
truth values) when their variables are each replaced by a
value from the domain (or bound by a quantifier, as we
will see later).
For example, let P(x) denote “x > 0” and the domain be
the integers. Then:
P(-3) is false.
P(0) is false.
P(3) is true.
Often the domain is denoted by U. So in this example U
is the integers.
Example
• Let p(x) denote the statement “x > 3”
– p(4): setting x=4, thus p(4) is true
– p(2): setting x=2, thus p(2) is false
•

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Examples of Propositional Functions
Let “x + y = z” be denoted by R(x, y, z) and U (for all
three variables) be the integers. Find these truth
values:
R(2,-1,5)
Solution: F
R(3,4,7)
Solution: T
R(x, 3, z)
Solution: Not a Proposition
 Quantifiers
We need quantifiers to express the meaning of English
words including all and some:
“All men are Mortal.”
“Some cats do not have fur.”
The two most important quantifiers are:
Universal Quantifier, “For all,” symbol: 
Existential Quantifier, “There exists,” symbol: 
 Universal Quantifier
x P(x) is read as “For all x, P(x)” or “For every x, P(x)”
Let P(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x. An
universal statement is a statement of the form
“∀x ∈ D, P(x).” It is defined to be true if, and only if,
P(x) is true for every x in D. It is defined to be false
if, and only if, P(x) is false for at least one x inD.
A value for x for which P(x) is false is called a
counterexample to the universal statement.
 Universal Quantifier
a. Let D ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, and consider the statement
∀x ∈ D, x2≥ x. Show that this statement is true.
b. Consider the statement
∀x ∈ R, x2≥x.
Find a counterexample to show that this statement
is false.
Existential Quantifier
x P(x) is read as “For some x, P(x)”, or as “There is an
x such that P(x),” or “For at least one x, P(x).”
Let P(x) be a predicate and D the domain of
x. An existential statement is a statement
of the form “∃x ∈ D such that P(x).” It is
defined to be true if, and only if, P(x) is true
for at least one x in D. It is false if, and only
if, P(x) is false for all x in D.
Existential Quantifier
x P(x) is read as “For some x, P(x)”, or as “There is an
x such that P(x),” or “For at least one x, P(x).”
Examples:
1. If P(x) denotes “x > 0” and U is the integers, then x P(x) is
true. It is also true if U is the positive integers.
2. If P(x) denotes “x < 0” and U is the positive integers, then
x P(x) is false.
3. If P(x) denotes “x is even” and U is the integers, then x
P(x) is true.
Properties of Quantifiers
The truth value of x P(x) and  x P(x) depend on
both the propositional function P(x) and on the
domain U.
Examples:
1. If U is the positive integers and P(x) is the statement
“x < 2”, then x P(x),
2.  x P(x)
Properties of Quantifiers
The truth value of x P(x) and  x P(x) depend on
both the propositional function P(x) and on the
domain U.
Examples:
1. If U is the negative integers and P(x) is the statement
“x < 2”, then x P(x) ?  x P(x)?
Properties of Quantifiers
The truth value of x P(x) and  x P(x) depend on
both the propositional function P(x) and on the
domain U.
Examples:
1. If U consists of 3, 4, and 5, and P(x) is the statement
“x > 2”, then x P(x)?  x P(x)?
2. If U consists of 3, 4, and 5, and P(x) is the statement
“x < 2”, then x P(x)?  x P(x) ?
Precedence of Quantifiers
The quantifiers  and  have higher precedence
than all the logical operators.
For example, x P(x) ∨ Q(x) means (x P(x))∨
Q(x)
x (P(x) ∨ Q(x)) means something different.
Translating from English to Logic
Example 1: Translate the following sentence into
predicate logic: “Every student in this class has taken a
course in Java.”
Translating from English to Logic
Example 1: Translate the following sentence into
predicate logic: “Every student in this class has taken a
course in Java.”
Solution:
First decide on the domain U.
If U is all students in this class, define a propositional
function J(x) denoting “x has taken a course in Java” and
translate as x J(x).
Translating from English to Logic
Example 1: Translate the following sentence into
predicate logic: “Every student in this class has taken a
course in Java.”
Solution:
First decide on the domain U.
Solution 1: If U is all students in this class, define a
propositional function J(x) denoting “x has taken a
course in Java” and translate as x J(x).
Solution 2: But if U is all people, also define a
propositional function S(x) denoting “x is a student in
this class”
Translating from English to Logic
Example 1: Translate the following sentence into predicate
logic: “Every student in this class has taken a course in
Java.”
Solution:
First decide on the domain U.
Solution 1: If U is all students in this class, define a
propositional function J(x) denoting “x has taken a course in
Java” and translate as x J(x).
Solution 2: But if U is all people, also define a propositional
function S(x) denoting “x is a student in this class” and
translate as x (S(x)→ J(x)).
x (S(x) ∧ J(x)) is not correct. What does it mean?
Translating from English to Logic
Example 2: Translate the following sentence into
predicate logic: “Some student in this class has taken a
course in Java.”
Translating from English to Logic
Example 2: Translate the following sentence into
predicate logic: “Some student in this class has taken a
course in Java.”
Solution:
First decide on the domain U.
Solution 1: If U is all students in this class, translate as
x J(x)
Translating from English to Logic
Example 2: Translate the following sentence into
predicate logic: “Some student in this class has taken a
course in Java.”
Solution:
First decide on the domain U.
If U is all people, then
Translating from English to Logic
Example 2: Translate the following sentence into
predicate logic: “Some student in this class has taken a
course in Java.”
Solution:
First decide on the domain U.
But if U is all people
x (S(x) ∧ J(x))
Universal Conditional Statements
∀x, if P(x) then Q(x ).

Rewrite the following statement informally, without

quantifiers or variables.
∀x ∈ R, if x > 2 then x2 > 4
Universal Conditional Statements
∀x, if P(x) then Q(x ).
Rewrite the following statement informally,
without quantifiers or variables.
∀x ∈ R, if x > 2 then x2 > 4
If a real number is greater than 2 then its square is
greater than 4
Equivalences in Predicate Logic
Statements involving predicates and quantifiers are
logically equivalent if and only if they have the same
truth value
The notation S ≡T indicates that S and T are logically
equivalent.
Example: x ¬¬S(x) ≡ x S(x)
Negating Quantified Expressions
Consider x J(x)
“Every student in your class has taken a course inCalculus.”
Here J(x) is “x has taken a course in Calculus” and
the domain is students in your class.
Negating Quantified Expressions
Consider x J(x)
“Every student in your class has taken a course in Java.”
Here J(x) is “x has taken a course in Java” and
the domain is students in your class.
Negating the original statement gives “It is not the
case that every student in your class has taken Java.”
This implies that “There is a student in your class who
has not taken Java.”
Symbolically ¬x J(x) and x ¬J(x) are equivalent
Negating Quantified Expressions
(continued)
Now Consider  x J(x)
“There is a student in this class who has taken a course in
Java.”
Where J(x) is “x has taken a course in Java.”
Negating Quantified Expressions
(continued)
Now Consider  x J(x)
“There is a student in this class who has taken a course in
Java.”
Where J(x) is “x has taken a course in Java.”
Negating the original statement gives “It is not the
case that there is a student in this class who has taken
Java.” This implies that “Every student in this class has
not taken Java”
Symbolically ¬ x J(x) and  x ¬J(x) are equivalent
Negating quantifications
• Consider the statement:
– All students in this class have red hair
• What is required to show the statement is false?

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Negating quantifications
• Consider the statement:
– All students in this class have red hair
• What is required to show the statement is false?
– There exists a student in this class that does NOT have
red hair
• To negate a universal quantification:

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Negating quantifications
• Consider the statement:
– All students in this class have red hair
• What is required to show the statement is false?
– There exists a student in this class that does NOT have
red hair
• To negate a universal quantification:
– You negate the propositional function
– AND you change to an existential quantification

– ¬x P(x) = x ¬P(x)

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De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers
The rules for negating quantifiers are:
Translation from English to Logic
Examples:
1. “Some student in this class has visited Mexico.”
Translation from English to Logic
Examples:
1. “Some student in this class has visited Mexico.”
Solution: Let M(x) denote “x has visited Mexico” and
S(x) denote “x is a student in this class,” and U be all
people.
Translation from English to Logic
Examples:
1. “Some student in this class has visited Mexico.”
Solution: Let M(x) denote “x has visited Mexico” and
S(x) denote “x is a student in this class,” and U be all
people.
x (S(x) ∧ M(x))
2. “Every student in this class has visited Canada or
Mexico.”
Solution:
Translation from English to Logic
Examples:
1. “Some student in this class has visited Mexico.”
Solution: Let M(x) denote “x has visited Mexico” and
S(x) denote “x is a student in this class,” and U be all
people.
x (S(x) ∧ M(x))
2. “Every student in this class has visited Canada or
Mexico.”
Solution: Add C(x) denoting “x has visited Canada.”
x (S(x)→ (M(x)∨C(x)))