AEII

CHAPTER 2
THE DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
 A differential amplifier is a BJT amplifier that produces outputs
that are a function of the difference between two input voltages.
 Modes of Signal Operation
1) Single-Ended Input
 When a diff-amp is operated in this mode, one input is grounded
and the signal voltage is applied only to the other input as shown
in Figure below.
 In the case where the signal voltage is applied to input1 as in part
(a), an inverted, amplified signal voltage appears at output1 as
shown. Also, a signal voltage appears in phase at the emitter of Q1
Since the emitters of Q1 and Q2 are common, the emitter signal
becomes an input to Q2 which functions as a common-base
amplifier.
 The signal is amplified by Q2 and appears, non-inverted, at output
2. This action is illustrated in part (a).
 In the case where the signal is applied to input 2 with input 1
grounded, as in Figure b, an inverted, amplified signal voltage
appears at output 2. In this situation, Q1 acts as a common-base
amplifier, and a non-inverted, amplified signal appears at output1.
This action is illustrated in part (b) of the figure.
Fig. Single-ended input operation of a differential amplifier.
 2) Differential input
 In this mode, two opposite-polarity (out-of-phase) signals are
applied to the inputs, as shown in Figure (a). This type of
operation is also referred to as double-ended.
 Each input affects the outputs, as you will see in the following
discussion.
 Figure (b) shows the output signals due to the signal on input1
acting alone as a single- ended input.
 Figure (c) shows the output signals due to the signal on input2
acting alone as a single-ended input.
 Notice in parts (b) and (c) that the signals on output1 are of the
same polarity. The same is also true for output 2.
 By superimposing both output1 signals and both output 2
signals, we get the total differential operation as pictured in
Figure (d)
Fig. Differential operation of a differential amplifier.
 3) Common-Mode Input
 One of the most important aspects of the operation of a diff-amp
can be seen by considering the common-mode condition where
two signal voltages of the same phase, frequency, and amplitude
are applied to the two inputs, as shown in Figure (a).
 Again, by considering each input signal as acting alone, the basic
operation can be understood.
 Figure (b) shows the output signals due to the signal on only input
1, and Figure (c) shows the output signals due to the signal on only
input 2.
 Notice that the corresponding signals on output1 are of the
opposite polarity and so are the ones on output2.
 When the input signals are applied to both inputs, the outputs are
superimposed and they cancel, resulting in a zero output voltage,
as shown in Figure (d).
 This action is called common-mode rejection. Its importance lies in
the situation where an unwanted signal appears commonly on
both diff-amp inputs.
Fig. Common-mode operation of a differential amplifier.
 Common-mode rejection means that this unwanted signal will not
appear on the outputs and distort the desired signal.
 Common-mode signals (noise) generally are the result of the pick-
up of radiated energy on the input lines from adjacent lines, the
60 Hz power line, or other sources.
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
 Desired signals appear on only one input or with opposite
polarities on both input lines.
 These desired signals are amplified and appear on the outputs
as previously discussed.
 Unwanted signals (noise) appearing with the same polarity on
both input lines are essentially cancelled by the diff-amp and
do not appear on the outputs.
 The measure of an amplifier's ability to reject common-mode
signals is a parameter called the common-mode rejection ratio
(CMRR).
 Ideally, a diff-amp provides a very high gain for desired signals
(single-ended or differential) and zero gain for common-mode
signals.
 Practical diff-amps, however, do exhibit a very small common-
mode gain (usually much less than 1), while providing a high
differential voltage gain (usually several thousand).
 The higher the differential gain with respect to the common-mode
gain, the better the performance of the diff-amp in terms of
rejection of common-mode signals.
 This suggests that a good measure of the diff-amp's performance
in rejecting unwanted common-mode signals is the ratio of the
differential voltage gain to the common-mode gain,
 This ratio is the common-mode rejection ratio, CMRR.
CMRR = 20 in dB
CMRR =

 A very high value of CMRR means that the differential gain is high
and the common-mode gain is low.
example
 Chapter 3
Operational Amplifier
 The operational amplifier is a direct coupled high gain amplifier
to which feedback is added to control its overall response
characteristics.
 It is used to perform a wide variety of linear functions (and also
non-linear functions) and it is often referred to as a basic linear
integrated circuit.
The basic operational amplifiers
 It has two input terminals, the inverting ( - ) input and the non-
inverting ( + ) input, and one output terminal.
 The typical op-amp operates with two dc supply voltages, one
positive and the other negative, as shown in Figure (b).
 Usually these dc voltage terminals are left off the schematic
symbol for simplicity but are understood to be there.
 Some typical op-amp IC packages are shown in Figure (c).
Fig. Op-amp symbols and packages.
 Ideal vs practical op-amp

Fig. Basic op-amp representations.

 Ideal op-amp characteristics
1) Input resistance
2) Output resistance
3) Infinite voltage gain ().
4) Zero offset voltage ().
5) Infinite bandwidth BW=
6) Infinite CMRR
7) Temperature insensitive
8) Infinite slew rate
Practical op-amp characteristics
1) Very high voltage gain but not infinity
2) Very high input impedance
3) Very low output impedance
 OP-AMPS WITH NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
 op-amp can be connected using negative feedback to stabilize
the gain and increase frequency response.
 The extremely high open-loop gain of an op-amp creates an
unstable situation because a small noise voltage on the input
can be amplified to a point where the amplifier is driven out of
its linear region. Also, unwanted oscillations can occur.
Non-inverting Amplifier
 An op-amp connected in a closed-loop configuration as a non-
inverting amplifier with a controlled amount of voltage gain is
shown in Figure above.
 The input signal is applied to the non-inverting (+) input. The
output is applied back to the inverting (-) input through the
feedback circuit (closed loop) formed by the input resistor , and
the feedback resistor
 Resistors and form a voltage-divider circuit, which reduces and
connects the reduced voltage to the inverting input.
 The feed- back voltage is expressed as
Ex- Determine the gain of the amplifier in Figure below. The open-
loop voltage gain of the op-amp is 100,000.
 Inverting Amplifier
 An op-amp connected as an inverting amplifier with a controlled
amount of voltage gain is shown in Figure below.
 The input signal is applied through a series input resistor to the
inverting ( - ) input.
 Also, the output is fed back through to the same input. The non-
inverting ( + ) input is grounded.

Fig. Inverting amplifier.

 An infinite input impedance implies zero current at the inverting
input.
 If there is zero current through the input impedance, then there
must be no voltage drop between the inverting and non-inverting
inputs.
 This means that the voltage at the inverting (-) input is zero
because the non-inverting ( + ) input is grounded.
 This zero voltage at the inverting in-put terminal is referred to as
virtual ground. This condition is illustrated in Figure (a).
Ex- Given the op-amp configuration in Figure below, determine the
value of required to produce a closed-loop voltage gain of -100.
 Op-amp applications
Comparators (analog to digital conversion)
 Operational amplifiers are often used as comparators to compare
the amplitude of one voltage with another.
 In this application, the op-amp is used in the open-loop
configuration, with the input voltage on one input and a reference
voltage on the other.
Zero-level Detection
 A comparator is a type of op-amp circuit that compares two input
voltages and produces an output in either of two states indicating
the greater than or less than relationship of the inputs.
 One application of an op-amp used as a comparator is to determine
when an input voltage exceeds a certain level. Figure (a) below
shows a zero-level detector.
 Notice that the inverting ( - ) input is grounded to produce a zero
level and that the input signal voltage is applied to the non-
inverting (+) input.
 Because of the high open-loop voltage gain, a very small
difference voltage between the two inputs drives the amplifier
into saturation, causing the output voltage to go to its limit.
 Figure (b) above shows the result of a sinusoidal input voltage
applied to the non-inverting (+) input of the zero-level detector.
 When the sine wave is positive, the output is at its maximum
positive level.
 When the sine wave crosses 0, the amplifier is driven to its
opposite state and the output goes to its maximum negative
level.
 The zero- level detector can be used as a squaring circuit to
produce a square wavelevel
Non-zero fromdetector
a sine wave.

 The zero-level detector can be modified to detect positive and

negative voltages by connecting a fixed reference voltage source
to the inverting ( - ) input.
 A more practical arrangement is shown in Figure (b) using a
voltage divider to set the reference voltage, , as follows:
where +v is positive op-amp dc supply voltage
 EX-
The input signal in Figure (a) is applied to the comparator circuit in
Figure (b). Draw the output showing its proper relationship to the
input signal. Assume the maximum output levels of the op-amp are
12 V.
Solution: The reference voltage is set by R1 and R2 as follows:

As shown in Figure 13-4, each time the input exceeds + 1.63 V, the
output voltage switches to its + 12 V level, and each time the input
goes below + 1.63 V, the output switches back to its -12 V level,
neglecting hysteresis.
 Summing amplifier
 A summing amplifier has two or more inputs, and its output
voltage is proportional to the negative of the algebraic sum of its
input voltages.

If

()
Ex- determine for the circuit given below.
 Integrator
 Integrator is a circuit that produces an output which
approximates the area under the curve of the input function.
 The feedback element is a capacitor that forms an RC circuit with
the input resistor.

(t)dt
 EX-
Determine the rate of change of the output voltage in response to the input
square wave, as shown for the integrator in Figure (a). The output voltage is
initially zero. The pulse width is 100μs.
 The Op-Amp Differentiator
 Is a circuit that produces an output which approximates the
instantaneous rate of the input function.
 Capacitor is an input element and the resistor is the feedback
element.

𝑑 𝑉 𝑖𝑛
𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 =− 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡
 Ex-
Determine the output voltage of the op-amp differentiator in
figure below for the triangular-wave input shown.
Fig. graph of the output voltage waveform relative to the input.
 Log and Antilog Amplifiers
 Log and antilog amplifiers are used in applications that require
compression of analog input data, linearization of transducers
that have exponential outputs, and analog multiplication and
division.
Log Amplifier with a Diode

Since inverting input is

virtual ground (0V),
the output is at -
when the input is
positive.
 Ex
Determine the output voltage for the log amplifier in Figure below.
Assume = 50 nA
Antilogarithm amplifier

)
 INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIERS

 An instrumentation amplifier is a differential voltage-gain device

that amplifies the difference between the voltages existing at its
two input terminals.
 The main purpose of an instrumentation amplifier is to amplify
small signals that are riding on large common-mode voltages.
 The key characteristics are high input impedance, high common-
mode rejection, low output offset, and low output impedance.
 A basic instrumentation amplifier is made up of three operational
amplifiers and several resistors.
 The voltage gain is set with an external resistor.
Fig. The basic instrumentation amplifier using three op-amps
 Op-amps A1 and A2 are non- inverting configurations that
provide high input impedance and voltage gain.
 Op-amp A3 is used as a unity-gain differential amplifier.
 The gain-setting resistor, RG' is connected externally as shown in
Figure above.
 Op-amp A1 receives the differential input signal on its non-inverting
(+ ) input and amplifies this signal with a voltage gain of
R.

 Op-amp A1 also has as an input signal to its inverting (-) input

through op-amp A2 and the path formed by R2 and RG The input
signal is amplified by op-amp A1 with a voltage gain of

𝑅1
𝐴𝑣 =
𝑅𝐺
Fig. The basic instrumentation amplifier with an external gain-
setting resistor RG' Differential and common-mode signals are
indicated.
where R1 = R2 = R.
Equation above shows that the gain of the instrumentation amplifier
can be set by the value of the external resistor RG when R. and R2
have known fixed values.
The external gain-setting resistor RG can be calculated for a desired
voltage gain by using Equation
Example
 Applications
 The instrumentation amplifier is normally used to measure small
differential signal voltages that are superimposed on a common-
mode voltage often much larger than the signal voltage.
 Applications include situations where a quantity is sensed by a
remote device, such as a temperature- or pressure-sensitive
transducer, and the resulting small electrical signal is sent over a
long line subject to electrical noise that produces common-mode
voltages in the line.
 The instrumentation amplifier at the end of the line must amplify
the small signal from the remote sensor and reject the large
common-mode voltage.
CONVERTERS AND OTHER OP-AMP CIRCUITS
Current-to- Voltage Converter

𝑣 𝑜𝑢𝑡 =𝐼 𝑖 𝑅 𝑓
 Voltage-to-Current Converter

 there is negligible current at the inverting input, the current

through RJ is the same as the current through R L ; thus
𝑉 𝑖𝑛
𝐼 𝐿=
𝑅1

 Used in applications where it is necessary to have an output

(load) current that is controlled by an input voltage.
 ACTIVE FILTERS
Introduction

Filter is a circuit used for signal processing due to its capability of

passing signals with certain selected frequencies and rejecting or
attenuating signals with other frequencies. This property is called
selectivity.
Filter can be passive or active filter.

Passive filters: The circuits built using RC, RL, or RLC

circuits.

Active filters : The circuits that employ one or more op-

amps in the design an addition to resistors
and capacitors.
Filter is a circuit that passes certain frequencies and rejects all
others. The pass band is the range of frequencies allowed
through the filter. The critical frequency defines the end (or
ends) of the pass band.
A low-pass filter is one that passes frequency from dc to
fc and significantly attenuates all other frequencies. The
simplest low-pass filter is a passive RC circuit with the
output taken across C.

Vo

Fig: Low-pass filter responses

Passband of a filter is the range of frequencies that are allowed
to pass through the filter with minimum attenuation (usually
defined as less than -3 dB of attenuation).

Transition region shows the area where the fall-off occurs.

Stopband is the range of frequencies that have the most

attenuation.

Critical frequency, fc, (also called the cutoff frequency) defines

the end of the pass-band and normally specified at the point
where the response drops – 3 dB (70.7%) from the pass-band
response.
At low frequencies, XC is very high and the capacitor circuit can be
considered as open circuit. Under this condition, Vo = Vin or AV = 1
(unity).
At very high frequencies, XC is very low and the Vo is small as
compared with Vin. Hence the gain falls and drops off gradually as the
frequency is increased.
The bandwidth of an ideal low-pass filter is equal to fc:
BW  f c
When XC = R, the critical frequency of a low-pass RC filter can be
calculated using the formula below:
1
fc 
2 RC
 A high-pass filter is one that significantly attenuates or rejects all
frequencies below fc and passes all frequencies above fc.
 The simplest low-pass filter is a passive RC circuit with the output
taken across R.

Vo

Fig: High-pass filter responses

The critical frequency for the high pass-filter also occurs when
XC = R, where
1
fc 
2 RC

A band-pass filter passes all signals lying within a band between a

lower-frequency limit and upper-frequency limit and
essentially rejects all other frequencies that are outside this specified
band. The simplest band-pass filter is an RLC circuit.
 Fig: General band-pass response curve.

The bandwidth (BW) is

defined as the difference
between the upper critical
frequency (fc2) and the lower
critical frequency (fc1).
BW  f c 2  f c1
The frequency about which the pass-band is centered is called the
center frequency, fo, defined as the geometric mean of the critical
frequencies.
fo  f c1 f c 2
The quality factor (Q) of a band-pass filter is the ratio of the center
frequency to the bandwidth.
fo
Q
BW
The quality factor (Q) can also be expressed in terms of the
damping factor (DF) of the filter as

1
Q
DF
Band-stop filter is a filter which its operation is opposite to that of
the band-pass filter because the frequencies within the bandwidth
are rejected, and the frequencies outside bandwidth are passed.
Its also known as notch, band-reject or band-elimination filter

Fig: General band-stop filter response.

The characteristics of filter response can be Butterworth, Chebyshev, or
Bessel characteristic.
Butterworth characteristic

Filter response is characterized by

flat amplitude response in the
passband.

Provides a roll-off rate of -20

dB/decade/pole.

Filters with the Butterworth

response are normally used when
all frequencies in the passband
must have the same gain.
Fig: Comparative plots of three types of
filter response characteristics.
Chebyshev characteristic Bessel characteristic

Filter response is characterized by Filter response is characterized by a

overshoot or ripples in the linear characteristic, meaning
passband. that the phase shift increases
linearly with frequency.
Provides a roll-off rate greater than
-20 dB/decade/pole. Filters with the Bessel response are
used for filtering pulse
Filters with the Chebyshev waveforms without distorting the
response can be implemented with shape of waveform.
fewer poles and less complex
circuitry for a given roll-off rate.
The critical frequency, fc is determined by the values of R and C in the
frequency-selective RC circuit.
For a single-pole (first-order)
filter, the critical frequency is

1
fc 
2 RC
The above formula can be
Fig: One-pole (first-order) low-pass used for both low-pass and
filter. high-pass filters.
The number of poles determines the roll-off rate of the filter. For
example, a Butterworth response produces -20 dB/decade/pole. This
means that:

one-pole (first-order) filter has a roll-off of -20 dB/decade;

two-pole (second-order) filter has a roll-off of -40 dB/decade;
three-pole (third-order) filter has a roll-off of -60 dB/decade;
and so on.
The number of filter poles can be increased by cascading. To obtain
a filter with three poles, cascade a two-pole and one-pole filters.

Fig: Three-pole (third-order) low-pass filter.

Advantages of active filters over passive filters (R, L, and C
elements only):
1. By containing the op-amp, active filters can be designed to
provide required gain, and hence no signal attenuation as the
signal passes through the filter.
2. No loading problem, due to the high input impedance of the op-
amp prevents excessive loading of the driving source, and the
low output impedance of the op-amp prevents the filter from
being affected by the load that it is driving.
3. Easy to adjust over a wide frequency range without altering the
desired response.
 Fig. : Single-pole active low-pass filter and response curve.
This filter provides a roll-off rate of -20 dB/decade above the critical
frequency.
The close-loop voltage gain is set by the values of R1 and R2, so that
R1
Acl ( NI )  1
R2
 Sallen-Key is one of the most common configurations for a two-
pole filter. It is also known as a VCVS (voltage-controlled voltage
source) filter.
There are two low-pass RC
circuits that provide a roll-
off of -40 dB/decade above
fc (assuming a Butterworth
characteristics).
One RC circuit consists of RA
and CA, and the second
circuit consists of RB and CB.
Fig: Basic Sallen-Key low-pass filter.
1
The critical frequency for the Sallen- fc 
Key filter is 2 RA RB C AC B
A three-pole filter is required to provide a roll-off rate of -60 dB/decade.
This is done by cascading a two-pole Sallen-Key low-pass filter and a
single-pole low-pass filter.

Fig: Cascaded low-pass filter: third-order configuration.

Four-pole filter is obtained by cascading Sallen-Key (2-pole) filters.

Fig: Cascaded low-pass filter: fourth-order configuration.

In high-pass filters, the roles of the capacitor and resistor are reversed in
the RC circuits. The negative feedback circuit is the same as for the low-
pass filters.

Fig: Single-pole active high-pass filter and response curve.

Components RA, CA, RB, and CB form the two-pole frequency-
selective circuit.
The position of the resistors and capacitors in the frequency-
selective circuit.
The response characteristics
can be optimized by proper
selection of the feedback
resistors, R1 and R2.

Fig: Basic Sallen-Key high-

pass filter.
As with the low-pass filter, first- and second-order high-pass filters can be
cascaded to provide three or more poles and thereby create faster roll-off
rates.

Fig: A six-pole high-pass filter consisting of three Sallen-Key two-pole

stages with the roll-off rate of -120 dB/decade.
Filters that build up an active band-pass filter consist of a Sallen-Key High-
Pass filter and a Sallen-Key Low-Pass filter.

Fig: Band-pass filter formed by cascading a two-pole high-pass and a two-

pole low-pass filters.
 Both filters provide the roll-off rates of –40 dB/decade, indicated in Fig.
below

The critical frequency of the high-pass filter, fC1 must be lower than that
of the low-pass filter, fC2 to make the center frequency overlaps.

Fig: The composite response curve of a high-pass filter and a low-pass

filter.
The lower frequency, fc1 of the pass-band is calculated as follows:
1
f C1 
2 RA1 RB1C A1C B1
The upper frequency, fc2 of the pass-band is determined as follows:

1
fC 2 
2 RA 2 RB 2C A 2C B 2

The center frequency, fo of the pass-band is calculated as follows:

fo  f C1 f C 2
Multiple-feedback band-pass
filter is another type of filter
configuration.
The feedback paths of the
filter are through R1 and C1.
R1 and C1 provide the low-
pass filter, and R2 and C2
provide the high-pass filter.
The center frequency is given
as Fig: Multiple-feedback band-
pass filter.
1
fo 
2 ( R1 // R3 ) R2C1C2
Band-stop filters reject a specified band of frequencies and
pass all others.
The response are opposite to that of a band-pass filter.
Band-stop filters are sometimes referred to as notch filters.

Fig: Multiple-feedback band-

stop filter.
This filter is similar to the
band-pass filter except that
R3 has been moved and R4
has been added.
Summing the low-pass and the high-pass responses of the state-
variable filter with a summing amplifier creates a state variable
band-stop filter.

Fig. 1-23: State-variable band-stop filter.

Example-1:
Determine the cutoff frequency, the pass-band gain in dB, and the
gain at the cutoff frequency for the active filter of Fig.below with
C = 0.022 μF, R = 3.3 kΩ, R1 = 24 kΩ, and R2 = 2.2 kΩ

Fig: One-pole (first-order) low-pass filter.

Example-2:
Determine the cutoff frequency, the pass-band gain in dB, and the
gain at the cutoff frequency for the active filter of Fig below with
C = 0.02 μF, R = 5.1 kΩ, R1 = 36 kΩ, and R2 = 3.3 kΩ

Fig: One-pole (first-order) high-pass filter.

Example-3:
Determine the critical frequency, the pass-band gain, and damping factor
for the second-order low-pass active filter with the following circuit
components:
R1 = R2 = 3 kΩ, C1 = C2 = 0.05 μF, R1 = 10 kΩ, R2 = 15 kΩ

Fig: Basic Sallen-Key/second-order low-pass filter.

Example-4:

Determine the capacitance value required to produce a critical

frequency of 2.68k Hz if all the resistors in the RC low-pass circuits are
1.8kΩ. Also select values for the feedback resistors to get a
Butterworth response.