Developing the Theory

of Evolution
 A Historical Context

• The English naturalist Charles Darwin was

by no means the first (or only) person to
influence thought on what is commonly
referred to as the theory of evolution
• Some Greek philosophers believed that life
gradually evolved

• Plato and Aristotle were not among the

supporters of this idea
 Predominant View:
• Religious beliefs of direct actions of a Creator
who formed the entire universe.

 all species were created in a single week and

remained unchanged over the course of time

• The Earth was only a few thousand years old

 In 19th Century scholars began to
present new ideas and some
proposed:
• that living things did change during the
course of the history of Earth

• Organisms that exist now might be

different from the organisms that existed in
the past

• Populations of organisms perhaps

changed from generation to the next
 Darwin’s name was closely
associated with the theory of
evolution because:

• He was able to link all prevailing

knowledge from paleontology, geology,
geography, and biology with his own
observations.

• Therefore, he developed a theory

describing a mechanism that showed
convincingly that life could change over
time.
 Alfred Russel Wallace:

• Another English
naturalist
independently came
to the same
conclusion of
evolution by natural
selection as Darwin.
• He published over 150 works and traveled
and lectured widely.

• He did not, however, agree with all the

contents of Darwin’s ‘The Origin of
Species’.
Who’s work influenced Darwin’s
theory?
• Cuvier

• Lyell

• Lamarck
 Cuvier’s Fossils:
• Cuvier’s Fossils:
• Georges Cuvier, 1769-1832
• Credited with developing the
science of paleontology
(study of fossils)
• Paleontology provided clues
to help develop the theory of
evolution
 Cuvier’s Observations

• The history of life was

recorded in Earth’s layers of
rocks.
• Each of the layers (strata) is
characterized by a unique
group of fossil species.
• The deeper (older) the
stratum, the more dissimilar
the plant and animal life from
modern life.
• Extinction of species was a fairly common
occurrence in the history of life on Earth.

• New species appeared and others

disappeared over millions of years.
Trilobites

• group of
extinct
marine
arthropods
• 540
–
250 MA
 Archaeopteryx

150–
145 MA
 Cuvier’s proposed theory of
catastrophism

• catastrophes (e.g. floods, diseases,

droughts) had periodically destroyed
species that were living in a particular
region
 Cuvier hypothesized:

• these catastrophes corresponded to the

boundaries between each stratum
• these were limited to local geographical
regions and the area would be
repopulated by species from nearby
unaffected areas
• this explained the appearance of ‘new’
species
 Criticisms

• this idea of irregular, unpredictable,

catastrophic events shaped Earth’s history
was rejected by other influential scientists

• Earth’s history was more gradual

Charles Lyell
• 1797 - 1875
• geologist
• wrote ‘Principles of
Geology’
• influenced Darwin’s
thought on the
changing geology of
Earth
 Lyell’s theory of
UNIFORMITARIANISM
• His idea rejected catastrophism

• Earth’s geological features were in a

slow continuous cycle of change.

• slow, subtle processes happening over a

long period of time could result in
substantial changes rather than
catastrophic.
Applying Lyell’s Theory to Biology:

• Slow, subtle changes in populations of

organisms could translate into substantial
changes over time.
 Lamarck

• French Naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

• Published a theory of evolution in 1809

• Compared current species of animals with

fossil forms
 Lamarck’s observations:

• A ‘line of descent’ where the fossil record

showed a series of fossils (from older to
more recent) that led to a modern species
Lamarck’s Theory of Inheritance
of Acquired Characteristics: :
• species were initially primitive 
increased complexity over time until they
achieved perfection
• organisms become progressively adapted
to their environments
• characteristics acquired during an
organism’s lifetime could be passed on to
its offspring.
 Examples of acquired traits:
• A blacksmith’s developed muscles could
be passed on to his children
• A giraffe’s effort to reach for food would
lead to longer necks that could be passed
on to the next generation
 Influence on Darwin:
• Although mechanism was incorrect and
controversial, the idea that adaptations to
the environment result in the evolution of
species influenced Darwin’s own theory.
 Charles Darwin
• 1831 on the HMS Beagle
• Five-year voyage took Darwin around the
world
• 5 week stop in the Galapagos
Islands

• Most of his time was spent

exploring the coast and coastal
islands of South America

• Studied the natural history in

various locations
• Hours observing and collecting thousands
of specimens led him to realize how life
forms change over time and from place to
place.
 Observations:

• Flora and Fauna were distinctly different

from region to region
 e.g rodents in South America
structurally different from rodents on other
continents
• Species in cooler, temperate regions of
South America were more closely related
to species living in the tropical regions of
that continent than to species in the
temperate regions of Europe or elsewhere
in the world
• Found important fossil remains
• E.g. an extinct armadillo-like animal,
glyptodont
• E.g. extinct
Megatherium
compared to modern
day sloths
• Galapagos supported very few animal
species (only 1 land animal, no frogs or
other amphibians)

• Observed many new species that were

unique to Galapagos, but fairly common in
the islands.
• E.g. huge land tortoises and giant cactus
trees
• Some of these species were slightly
different from island to island
• E.g. huge land tortoises (was told by local
residents)
• E.g. finches (he collected 13 species =
‘Darwin’s finches’)
• After cataloging the birds, it was concluded that
all of the birds were new species that had never
been described before
• Although they were somewhat similar to finches
on the coast of S. America, they were distinct
species
• They must have modified from an ancestral form
of the bird that was blown by chance into the
newly formed Galapagos Islands.
• Thus, the info gathered on tortoises and
finches, demonstrated a mechanism for
how new species could arise from
ancestral ones in response to the local
environment.
 Darwin’s approach to evolution
incorporated the following
hypotheses (i.e.,combining his own
observations with other scientists):

1) Earth is very old, and organisms have

been changing steadily throughout the
history of life
2) All organisms are descendants of a
common ancestor (early life forms)
3) The great diversity of life found on Earth
is the result of new species forming from
older species.
4) Evolution proceeds via gradual changes
in populations, not by the sudden
production of individuals of dramatically
different types
5) The major agent of evolutionary change
is natural selection.