.

Chapter IV

Research Design

Jun 20, 2024

 INTRODUCTION .
• The formidable problem that follows the task of
defining the research problem is the preparation of the
design of the research project, popularly known as the
“research design”.
• Decisions regarding what, where, when, how
much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a
research study constitute a research design
• The research design provides the back bone structure
of the study, it supports the study and hold it's
together
Jun 20, 2024
 4.1. Research Design: Definition

A research design is:

• a framework for the research plan of action.

• a master plan that specifies the methods and

procedures for collecting and analyzing the
needed information

• a strategy for how the data will be collected

Jun 20, 2024
 Purposes of Research Design
• It provides the scheme for answering research
question.
• It maintains control to avoid bias that may affect
the outcomes.
• It organize the study in a certain way defending
the advantages of doing while being aware and
caution about potential disadvantages

Jun 20, 2024

 Characteristics of good design
1- Appropriateness to the research question.

2- Lack of bias.

3- Precision.

Research design can be either quantitative or

qualitative. Both designs complement each other

because they generate different kinds of knowledge

that are useful in research practice.

Jun 20, 2024
 Components of a Research Design.
• Define the problem
• Design the exploratory, descriptive, and/or causal phases
of the research
• Specify the measurement and scaling procedures
• Construct and pretest a questionnaire (interviewing
form) or an appropriate form for data collection
• Specify the sampling process and sample size
• Develop a plan of data analysis

Jun 20, 2024

 .
• Research design must, at least, contain—

(a) a clear statement of the research problem;

(b) procedures and techniques to be used for

gathering information;

(c) the population to be studied;

(d) methods to be used in processing and analyzing

data
Jun 20, 2024
Important Concepts Concerning Research
Design

1. Dependent /responding variable

independent variables/manipulated variable

• Any factor that can change in a scientific investigation

• If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of

the other variable --- a dependent variable,

• the variable that is antecedent to the dependent

variable --- an independent variable.

Jun 20, 2024

 2. Extraneous variable:

 Independent variables that are not related to the

purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent
variable.
 Example, the researcher wants to test the hypothesis:
a relationship between children’s gains in social
studies achievement and their self-concepts
 self-concept is an independent variable, social studies
achievement is a dependent variable.

Jun 20, 2024

 .

 Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement,

but since it is not related to the purpose of the study undertaken

by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable.

 It interferes the effect of the relationship b/n DV & IDV

 Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of

extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an

‘experimental error’.

Intelligence

social studies
achievement
self-concepts
Jun 20, 2024
 3. Controlled variable

 One important characteristic of a good research design is to

minimize the influence or effect of extraneous variable(s).
 The factor or conditions that are kept the same ( unchanged)
in an experiment.

4. Confounded relationship
 When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s)
 the relationship between the dependent and independent
variables is said to be confounded/confused by an extraneous
variable(s).
Jun 20, 2024
 Experimental and Non experimental Research

• When the purpose of research is to test a hypothesis , it

is termed as hypothesis testing research

• It can be of experimental design or of the non-

experimental design.

• Research in which the IDV is manipulated is termed as

experiment research.

• A research in which an IDV is not manipulated is called

Hypothesis Testing

a non-experimental research.
Jun 20, 2024
Experimental Non-experimental talN
 Example
• Suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects MBA extension

students reading ability.

• And selects 20 students and test their intelligence and reading ability by

calculating the correlation b/n the two sets of scores.

• Herein the IDV intelligence is not manipulated so that it is non –experimental

hypothesis testing research.

• If the researcher randomly selects 20 students from the group and divides the

group randomly assigning 10 to the group A, the usual studies program

• And 10 to group B , the special studies program

• At the end of the course he administers a test to each group in order to judge the

effectiveness of the training program on the students performance level .

• In this case , the IDV, the type training program is manipulated so that it is

experimental hypothesis testing research.

Jun 20, 2024

 .
• In the above illustration, the group A can be called a

control group and the group B an experimental

group.

• If group B and A were exposed to special

program ,then both groups would be termed as

“experimental groups”

• When a group is exposed to some special condition ,

it is termed as “experimental group”

• When group is exposed usual conditions ,it is

Jun 20, 2024
termed as control group
 Types of Research Design
• Although every problem and research objective

may seem unique, there are usually enough

similarities among problems and objectives to

allow decisions to be made in advance about the

best plan to resolve the problem.

• There are some basic research designs that can

be successfully matched to given problems and

research objectives
Jun 20, 2024
 Research Design
.
Research Design

Analytical Research Experimental Research

Descriptive Research Pre-designs

Reviews
Quasi-designs
Philosophical Case Study Survey

Historical True-designs
Cross-Sectional
Meta-Analyses
Longitudinal
Statistical-
Correlational designs

Jun 20, 2024

 Analytical Research
• Analytical research is a specific type of research that involves
critical thinking skills and the evaluation of facts and
information relative to the research being conducted

• Reviews ,A critical account of present understanding

– A meta-analysis is a quantitative method of review

• Historical Research ,Accessing both primary (e.g. witnesses) or

secondary (e.g. literature) sources to document past events

• Philosophical Research ,Organising existing evidence into a

comprehensive theoretical model
 A meta-analysis is basically a study about studies. In other words, a researcher reviews

previously published studies on a topic, and analyzes the various results to find general

trends across the studies

Jun 20, 2024

 Descriptive Research
• Case Study
– Is an in-depth and detailed examination of a case.
• Survey, Survey research is often used to assess thoughts, opinions, and
feelings
 Cross-sectional: Status of a various groups at a given point in
time
 Longitudinal: Status of a given group at various points in time
Correlational design
• It examine relationships between or among two or more variables in a single
group.
• It requires a large sample size. Subjects are not divided into groups
• The correlational design doesn’t test the cause and effect relationship

Jun 20, 2024

 Experimental Research
• Experimental research involves a direct assessment of how one variable

influences another

• This allows the establishment of causality

• All extraneous variables must be held constant while a single variable is

manipulated and the effect measured

Definition of variables:

• IDV = this variable is the ‘cause’, can be manipulated or allowed to vary,

also known as the predictor variable

• DV=this variable is the ‘effect’ , should only vary in response to the IV,

also known as the criterion variable

• Extraneous Variables = must be controlled to isolate the effect of the IV on the

DV
Jun 20, 2024
 Types of Research Design

. Research Design

Exploratory Research Conclusive Research

Design Design

Descriptive Causal
Research Research

Cross-Sectional Design Longitudinal Design

Single Cross-Sectional Design Multiple Cross-Sectional Design

Jun 20, 2024

 Exploratory & Conclusive Research Differences

Exploratory
Conclusive
Objective: To provide insights and
understanding • To test specific hypotheses
and examine relationships.
Character- Information needed is defined
istics: only loosely. Research process • Information needed is
is flexible and unstructured. clearly defined. Research
Sample is small and non- process is formal and
representative. Analysis of structured. Sample is large
primary data is qualitative and representative. Data
analysis is quantitative.
Findings Tentative.
/Results:

• Conclusive.
Outcome Generally followed by further
exploratory or conclusive
research
• Findings used as input into
Jun 20, 2024
decision making.
Basic Research Objectives and Research Design

• Research Objective Appropriate Design

• To gain background information, Exploratory

to define terms, to clarify
problems and hypotheses,
to establish research priorities

• To describe and measure Descriptive

phenomena at a point in time

• To determine causality, Causal

to make “if-then” statements
Jun 20, 2024
 Uses of Exploratory Research
– also termed as formulative research studies
– The main purpose
• formulating a problem for more precise investigation
• of developing the working hypotheses from an operational
point of view
• The major emphasis is on the discovery of ideas and insights
• To establish research priorities
• A variety of methods are available to conduct exploratory research:

• Secondary Data Analysis

• Experience Surveys : To obtain insight into the relationships between
variables and new ideas relating to the research problem
• Case Analysis ,Focus Groups ,Projective Techniques
Jun 20, 2024
 .
• Exploratory research is most commonly unstructured,
informal research that is undertaken to gain
background information about the general nature of
the research problem.

• By unstructured, we mean there is no formal set of

objectives, sample plan, or questionnaire It is usually
conducted when the researcher does not know much
about the problems.

• Exploratory research is usually conducted at the

outset of research projects
Jun 20, 2024
 Descriptive and diagnostic research studies

• Descriptive research studies

– describing the characteristics of a particular individual,
or of a group
– Diagnostic research studies

• determine the frequency with which something occurs

• or its association with something else

• Descriptive research is undertaken to provide answers to questions of

who, what, where, when, and how – but not why.

• Two basic classifications of descriptive :

• Cross-sectional studies
Jun 20, 2024
• Longitudinal studies
 Methods of Descriptive Research

• Secondary data analyzed in a quantitative as

opposed to a qualitative manner Surveys
• Panels
• Observational and other data

Jun 20, 2024

 Cross-sectional Designs
• Cross-sectional studies measure units from a sample

of the population at only one point in time.

• Sample surveys are cross-sectional studies whose

samples are drawn in such a way as to be

representative of a specific population.
• On-line survey research is being used to collect data

for cross-sectional surveys at a faster rate of speed.

Jun 20, 2024

 Longitudinal Designs
• A fixed sample (or samples) of population
elements is measured repeatedly on the
same variables
• A longitudinal design differs from a cross-
sectional design in that the sample or
samples remain the same over time

Jun 20, 2024

 Casual Research
• Causality may be thought of as understanding a
phenomenon in terms of conditional statements of
the form “If x, then y.”
• Causal studies are conducted through the use of
experiments
• Experimental studies are those where the researcher
tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between
variables. Such studies require procedures that will
not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will
permit drawing inferences about causality
Jun 20, 2024
 Experiments
• An experiment is defined as manipulating an
independent variable to see how it affects a
dependent variable, while also controlling the
effects of additional extraneous variables.

• Independent variables are those variables which the

researcher has control over and wishes to
manipulate.

– For example: level of ad expenditure; type of ad

appeal; price; product features, effects on sales.
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 Dependent Variables

Dependent variables are those variables that

we have little or no direct control over, yet
we have a strong interest in. Examples
would be
a return on investment,

a net profits,

a market share,

a customer satisfaction.
Jun 20, 2024
 Extraneous Variables
• Extraneous variables are those variables that
may have some effect on a dependent variable
yet are not independent variables.
• Extraneous variables must be controlled
through proper experimental design.

Jun 20, 2024

 Experimental Design
Purpose : to investigate cause-and-effect relationships
among variables independent and dependent variables
Answers the question “What will be?

• Characteristics
– Direct manipulation of the independent variable
– Control of extraneous variables

Experiments can be of two types viz.,

absolute experiment and comparative experiment.

Jun 20, 2024

 .

 Eg. If we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer

on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute
experiment;
 but if we want to determine the impact of one
fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other
fertilizer, our experiment then will be termed as a
comparative experiment.

Fertilizer i Yield of crop

Fertilizer ii Yield of crop

Jun 20, 2024
 Key terms
• Experiment: Process of collecting sample data

• Design of Experiment: Plan for collecting the sample

• Response Variable: Variable measured in experiment (outcome, y)

• Experimental Unit: Object upon which the response y is measured

• Factors: Independent Variables

• Level: The value assumed by a factor in an experiment

• Treatment: A particular combination of levels of the factors in an experiment

Jun 20, 2024

 Steps in Experimental Research
1. State the research problem

2. Determine if experimental methods apply

3. Specify the independent variable(s)

4. Specify the dependent variable(s)

5. State the tentative hypotheses

6. Determine measures to be used

7. Identify intervening (extraneous) variables

8. Formal statement of research hypotheses

9. Design the experiment

10. Final estimate of potential success

11. Conduct the study as planned

12. Analyze the collected data

Jun 20, 2024
13. Prepare a research report
 principles of experimental designs
• Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of
experimental designs:
(1) the Principle of Replication;
(2) the Principle of Randomization; and the
(3) Principle of Local Control.

Jun 20, 2024

 Principle of Replication
• According to this principle, the experiment should be repeated more than once.
• suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we
may divide the field into two parts and grow one variety in one part and the other
variety in the other part.
• We can then compare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on that basis.

• But if we are to apply the principle of replication to this experiment, then we first
divide the field into several parts, grow one variety in half of these parts and
the other variety in the remaining parts. We can then collect the data of yield of the
two varieties and draw conclusion by comparing the same.
• The result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we
draw.
• The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for better results.
• Replication is introduced in order to increase the precision of a study.

• s.em=δ/√n Standard error decreases when the size of the sample increase
Jun 20, 2024
 Principle of Randomization
–Conducting of experiment under this principle provides protection
against the effects of extraneous factors by randomization.
•For instance, if we grow one variety of rice, say, in the first half of
the parts of a field and the other variety is grown in the other half,
then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the
first half in comparison to the other half. If this is so, our results
would not be realistic.
•In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be grown
in different parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling
technique i.e., we may apply randomization principle and protect
ourselves against the effects of the extraneous factors.

Jun 20, 2024

 Principle of Local Control
– Plan the experiment for performing a two-way analysis
of variance
– In other words,
• first divide the field into several homogeneous parts, known as
blocks,
• then each such block is divided into parts equal to the number of
treatments. Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these
parts of a block.

• the principle of local control can eliminate the

variability due to extraneous factor(s) from the
experimental error
Jun 20, 2024
 Important Experimental Designs

• Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment and as

such there are two broad categories, viz., informal experimental designs and
formal experimental designs.
• Informal experimental designs are those designs that normally use a less
sophisticated form of analysis based on differences in magnitudes,
• whereas formal experimental designs offer relatively more control and use
precise statistical procedures for analysis. Important experiment designs are as
follows:
(a)Informal experimental designs:
1. Before-and-after without control design.
2. After-only with control design.
3. Before-and-after with control design.
(b)Formal experimental designs:
1. Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).
2. Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
3. Jun
Latin square design (L.S. Design).
20, 2024 4. Factorial designs
1. Before-and-after without control design:
 A single test group or area is selected, and the
dependent variable is measured
 The treatment is then introduced and then the
dependent variable is measured again
The effect of the treatment
 the level of the phenomenon after the treatment - the level of
the phenomenon before the treatment

Jun 20, 2024

 Before-and-after without control design .
.
Test area: Level of Level of
phenomenon phenomenon
Treatment
before after treatment
treatment (X) introduced (Y)

Treatment Effect = (Y) – (X)

The main difficulty of such a design is that with the

passage of time considerable extraneous variations may
be there in its treatment effect.

Jun 20, 2024

 2. After-only with control design
In this design two groups or areas (test area and
control area) are selected and the treatment is
introduced into the test area only.
The dependent variable is then measured in both the
areas at the same time.
Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value
of the dependent variable in the control area from its
value in the test area.

Jun 20, 2024

 After-only with control design.
Test area: Treatment Level of phenomenon
introduced
after treatment ( y)
Control area: ---------------------
Level of phenomenon
without treatment (z)
Treatment Effect =
(Y) – (Z)

The basic assumption in such a design is that the two areas are identical
with respect to their behaviour towards the phenomenon considered.
If this assumption is not true, there is the possibility of extraneous
variation entering into the treatment effect.
However, data can be collected in such a design without the introduction
of problems with the passage of time.
In this respect the design is superior to before-and-after without control
design
Jun 20, 2024
 3. Before-and-after with control design
• In this design two areas are selected and the
dependent variable is measured in both the areas for
an identical time-period before the treatment.
• The treatment is then introduced into the test area
only, and the dependent variable is measured in both
for an identical time-period after the introduction of
the treatment.
• The treatment effect is determined by subtracting the
change in the dependent variable in the control area
from the change in the dependent variable in test area
Jun 20, 2024
 Before-and-after with control design

This design is superior to the above two designs for the simple
reason that it avoids extraneous variation resulting both from the
passage of time and from non-comparability of the test and control
areas.
But at times, due to lack of historical data, time or a comparable
control area, we should prefer to select one of the first two informal
Jun 20, 2024
designs stated above.
 4. Completely randomized design (C.R. design):
• Involves only two principles viz., the principle of replication and the principle of

randomization of experimental designs.

• The essential characteristic of the design is that subjects are randomly assigned to

experimental treatments

• For instance, if we have 10 subjects and if we wish to test 5 under treatment A and 5

under treatment B, the randomization process gives every possible group of 5 subjects

selected from a set of 10 an equal opportunity of being assigned to treatment A and

treatment B.

• One-way analysis of variance (or one-way ANOVA)* is used to analyse such a design.

Even unequal replications can also work in this design.

• It provides maximum number of degrees of freedom to the error. Such a design is

generally used when experimental areas happen to be homogeneous.

• Technically, when all the variations due to uncontrolled extraneous factors are included

under the heading of chance variation, we refer to the design of experiment as C.R.
Jun 20, 2024
design.
 (i) Two-group simple randomized design

• First of all the population is defined and then from the population a
sample is selected randomly.
• Further, requirement of this design is that items, after being selected
randomly from the population, be randomly assigned to the
experimental and control groups (Such random assignment of items to
two groups is technically described as principle of randomization). Thus,
this design yields two groups as representatives of the population.
• In a diagram form this design can be shown in this way

• Since in the sample randomized design the elements constituting the

sample are randomly drawn from the same population and randomly
assigned to the experimental and control groups, it becomes possible to
draw conclusions on the basis of samples applicable for the population..
Jun 20, 2024
Jun 20, 2024
 II. Random replications design:
• From the diagram BELOW it is clear that there are two populations in the

replication design.

• The sample is taken randomly from the population available for study and is

randomly assigned to, say, four experimental and four control groups.

• Similarly, sample is taken randomly from the population available to conduct

experiments (because of the eight groups eight such individuals be selected) and

the eight individuals so selected should be randomly assigned to the eight groups.

• Generally, equal number of items are put in each group so that the size of the

group is not likely to affect the result of the study.

• Variables relating to both population characteristics are assumed to be randomly

distributed among the two groups.

• Thus, this random replication design is, in fact, an extension of the two-group

simple randomized design

Jun 20, 2024
 .

Jun 20, 2024

 5. Randomized block design (R.B. design)
• The main feature of the R.B. design is that in this each treatment appears the same

number of times in each block.

• The R.B. design is analysed by the two-way analysis of variance (two-way ANOVA) *

technique.

example.

• Suppose four different forms of a standardised test in statistics were given to each

of five students (selected one from each of the five I.Q. blocks) and

• following are the scores which they obtained In the R.B. design, subjects are first

divided into groups, known as blocks,

• such that within each group the subjects are relatively homogeneous in respect to

some selected variable.

• The variable selected for grouping the subjects is one that is believed to be related
to the measures to be obtained in respect of the dependent variable.
• The number of subjects in a given block would be equal to the number of
treatments and one subject in each block would be randomly assigned to each
Jun 20, 2024
treatment
 .

• If each student separately randomized the

order in which he or she took the four tests (by
using random numbers or some similar device),
• we refer to the design of this experiment as a
R.B. design. The purpose of this randomization
is to take care of such possible extraneous
factors (say as fatigue) or perhaps the
experience gained from repeatedly taking the
test.

Jun 20, 2024

 .

Jun 20, 2024

 .

• The researcher divide the sample into relatively

homogeneous subgroups or blocks .

• Then, the experimental design you want to implement is

implemented within each block or homogeneous subgroup.

The key idea is that the variability within each block is less

than the variability of the entire sample.

• Thus each estimate of the treatment effect within a block is

more efficient than estimates across the entire sample. And,

when we pool these more efficient estimates across blocks,

we should get an overall more efficient estimate than we

would without blocking.

Jun 20, 2024
 Example
• In a study of college students, we might expect that
students are relatively homogeneous with respect
to class or year.
• So, we decide to block the sample into four groups:
freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior.
• If our hunch is correct, that the variability within
class is less than the variability for the entire
sample, we will probably get more powerful
estimates of the treatment effect within each block
• Within each of our four blocks, we would
implement the simple post-only randomized
experiment
Jun 20, 2024
6. Latin square design (L.S. design)
An experimental design very frequently used in agricultural research

The following is a
diagrammatic form of such
a design in respect of, say,
five types of fertilizers,
viz., A, B, C, D and E and
the two blocking factor
viz., the varying soil
fertility and the varying
seeds

Jun 20, 2024

A Latin square is a square array of objects (letters A, B, C, …) such that
.
each object appears once and only once in each row and each column.

The Latin-square design is one wherein each fertilizer, in our example,

appears five times but is used only once in each row and in each column of

the design.

 In other words, the treatments in a L.S. design are so allocated among

the plots that no treatment occurs more than once in any one row or any

one column.

 The two blocking factors may be represented through rows and columns

(one through rows and the other through columns).

Jun 20, 2024

 .
• The above diagram clearly shows that in a L.S.

design the field is divided into as many blocks as

there are varieties of fertilizers and

• then each block is again divided into as many parts

as there are varieties of fertilizers in such a way
that each of the fertilizer variety is used in each of
the block (whether column-wise or row-wise) only
once.

• The analysis of the L.S. design is very similar to the

two-way ANOVA technique
Jun 20, 2024
 7. Factorial Designs
• Factorial designs are used in experiments where the
effects of varying more than one factor are to be
determined.
• They are specially important in several economic
and social phenomena where usually a large number
of factors affect a particular problem.
• Factorial designs can be of two types:

(i) simple factorial designs and

(ii) complex factorial designs.

Jun 20, 2024
 .

Simple factorial designs:

• In case of simple factorial designs, we consider
the effects of varying two factors on the
dependent variable, but when an experiment is
done with more than two factors, we use complex
factorial designs.
• Simple factorial design is also termed as a ‘two-
factor-factorial design’, whereas complex factorial
design is known as ‘multi-factor-factorial design.’

Jun 20, 2024

 Factorial Experimental Designs

• .
Experimental designs with more than one independent variable.
The term factor refer to each of manipulated independent variables.

Example. IV. Sex (male, female), 2 Factors

Ethnicity (Black, White, Asian, Latino)
DV. Self-esteem 4 levels

2 levels Black White Asian Ratino

M 20 24 19 20 Cells
F 24 18 20 21 2  4 designs
Jun 20, 2024
 OUTPUTS.

Main Effects, Interactions, and Simple Effects

The effect of each factors
•Main
. Effects
Interactions The effects in which the influence of one factor on the
DV is different at different levels of another factors.
Simple Effects The effect of one factor within a level of another factor

Jun 20, 2024

 Example

• Suppose an investigator is interested in examining three components

of a weight loss intervention. The three components are

 Keeping a food diary (yes or no);

 Increasing activity (yes or no); and

 Home visit (yes or no).

• The investigator plans to manipulate each of these components

experimentally. Thus, each becomes an independent variable.

• Basic information, notation and terminology

• The investigator plans to use a factorial experimental design. Each independent variable

is a factor in the design. Because there are three factors and each factor has two levels,

this is a 2×2×2, or 23, factorial design. This design will have 23=8 different experimental

conditions.
Jun 20, 2024 Table 1 below shows what the experimental conditions will be.
 .
Table 1

Experimental conditions in the 23 factorial design for the hypothetical weight loss intervention

Factor

Experimental condition number Keeping a food diary Increasing physical activity Home visit

1 No No No

2 No No Yes

3 No Yes No

4 No Yes Yes

5 Yes No No

6 Yes No Yes

7 Yes Yes No

8 Yes Yes Yes

how many levels each factor has (2); and how many
experimental conditions there are in the design
(2
Jun 20, =8).
3
2024
•
.
to estimate the main effect of keeping a food diary, you would
compare the mean of all of the conditions in which keeping a
food diary is set to No (Conditions 1—4) to the mean of all of
the conditions in which keeping a food diary is set to Yes
(Conditions 5—8). In Table 2, this is the mean of the unshaded
conditions compared to the mean of the shaded conditions

Jun 20, 2024

 .

Jun 20, 2024

 .

• Now let’s consider the main effect of a different factor,

increasing physical activity.
• This would be obtained by comparing the mean of the
conditions in which the increasing physical activity
component is included (1,2,5, and 6) to the mean of
the conditions in which this component is not included
(3,4,7, and 8).
• In Table 3, this is the mean of unshaded conditions
compared to the mean of the shaded conditions

Jun 20, 2024

Experimental vs. Quasi-experimental Research
Designs

• Experimental research design: The researcher has

control over the experiment in terms of sample
selection, treatment, environment, etc.

• Quasi-experiments: The researcher does not have

control over the experiment, rather the experiment occurs
in a “natural” setting.

• Quasi-experimental design are typical in economics,

sociology, public administration, urban planning, political
sciences, etc.
Jun 20, 2024
 Non-Experimental Research

Research in which the experimenter does not

have complete control over the conditions of
the study
• Researcher gives up some control in order to
get the data

Jun 20, 2024

 Types of Non-Experimental Research
• Surveys
• Observational Research
• Archival Research
• Case Studies

Jun 20, 2024

 Case study design
• What is a case study?
• In-depth analysis of topic using multiple
sources of evidence
• Richly descriptive, grounded in deep and varied
sources of information
• Good for showing how something
happens/works in a real life situation /
Understanding a complex issue
• Explore; Describe; Explain

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 .

Case studies can be:

• Exploratory
• Explanatory
• Descriptive (Yin, 1994)

Case studies can be used to:

• Provide description
• Test theory
• Generate theory (Eisenhardt, 1989).
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 When to choose
• Choice of history, case studies or experiments
will depend on access.
• Case studies preferred in examining
contemporary events.
• Experiments are done when the investigator
can manipulate behavior directly, precisely
and systematically

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 Methods of Analysis
(Types of Evidence)

• Documentation
• Interviews
• Direct Observation
• Participant Observation
• ...and Others (Survey, Artifacts, etc.)
• Why multiple? ...Triangulation
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 How to Conduct Case Studies
• Determine / define research question

– good for “how” & “why” questions / limited number of events and their

interrelationships

• Select cases & determine data gathering / analysis techniques

– not a “sampling technique” -- select to maximize what can be learned

– with multiple cases, each is a single case with conclusions contributing to the

whole study

• Prepare to collect data

– systematic organization is key!

• Collect / evaluate data

• Prepare the report (and graduate!)

Jun 20, 2024
Potential Sources of Error in Research Designs
.
Total Error

• .
Random Non-sampling
Sampling Error Error

Response Non-response
Error Error

Researcher Interviewer Respondent

Error Error Error

Surrogate Information Error Respondent Selection Error Inability Error

Measurement Error Questioning Error Unwillingness Error
Population Definition Error Recording Error
Sampling Frame Error Cheating Error
Data
JunAnalysis
20, 2024 Error
 Errors in Research
• The total error is the variation between the true mean value in

the population of the variable of interest and the observed mean

value obtained in the research project.

• Random sampling error is the variation between the true mean

value for the population and the true mean value for the original

sample.

• Non-sampling errors can be attributed to sources other than

sampling, and they may be random or non random: including

errors in problem definition, approach, scales, questionnaire

design, interviewing methods, and data preparation and analysis.

Non-sampling
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errors consist of non-response errors and response errors.
 .

• Non-response error arises when some of

the respondents included in the sample do
not respond.
Response error arises when respondents
give inaccurate answers or their answers are
misrecorded or misanalyzed

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 Discussion questions
You are expected to present your work for your classmates

1. Explain the meaning and significance of a Research design.

2. “Research design in exploratory studies must be flexible but in

descriptive studies, it must minimise bias and maximise reliability.”

Discuss.

3. Give your understanding of a good research design. Is single research

design suitable in all research studies? If not, why?

4. What is the distinction between experimental and non-

experimental design

5. What is the primary benefit of randomization?

Jun 20, 2024

 Group Activity

•
Form a group of two and answer questions that follow.

• Directions: Read the following experiments and fill in the blanks that follow

1. A study was created to test the effects of jazz on people’s sleep patterns. The hypothesis of the experiment was that if

people listened to jazz music as they fall asleep, they will sleep for longer periods of time. For the experiment, 2 groups

of people were created. One group was placed in a quiet room where they went to sleep and they were timed on how

long they slept. The other group was placed in a room where jazz music played softly as they began to sleep and played

throughout the night. As each group awoke, their sleep times were monitored.

Dependent Variable: ………….. Control Group: ……………………….

Independent Variable: ….. Experimental Group: ………………………

2. A study was created to test the effects of fear in children. The hypothesis of the experimenters was that if babies were

exposed to fuzzy bunnies and at the same time a loud cymbal was struck close behind them, then that child would be

afraid of all fuzzy things. Another group of children would be exposed to bunnies without any loud noises. The study was

carried out as planned and as a result, hundreds of young children developed fear of all cute furry bunny rabbits.

Dependent Variable: ………….. Control Group: …………………………….

Independent Variable: ………. Experimental Group: …………………..

3. Does changing the color of light affect the growth rate of plants?

IDV………………………………. DV.………………………………….

Controlled variable………………….

•
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•
 Assignment
1. A researcher wants to know the antecedents of customer loyalty in CBE.
Based on the above statement Give answers for the following questions
i. Write the title of research………………………
ii. Define the problem
iii. List research questions
iv. Research objectives
v. IDV and DV
vi. Develop hypotheses
vii. Depict research design
2. Give detail answer for the following
Research design Description Advantage Disadvantage
Exploratory
Cross-Sectional
Longitudinal
Experimental
Case Study
Analytical
Correlational
Jun 20, 2024