RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
SESSION 2

madhusudan mukerjee
Toucans of research
methods

QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
• Uses Writing • Uses numbers
• Data could be • Data takes the
in virtually any form of counts,
form – text, correlations
images, and other
narratives statistical stuff
 basic elements of
Qualitative research Quantitative research
• Usually n<50 • Usually n>50
• Studies the • Studies the limited
multiple characteristics of
many examples of one
characteristics of
thing
a few • Emphasizes the
• Emphasizes the parsimony of
richness of the accounts (thrifty in
accounts (very study and elaboration)
descriptive)
Qualitative research Quantitative research
• Researcher adopts a • Researcher adopts an
subjective stance objective stance
• Aims to interpret • Aims to minimize
events subjective
• Data Collection understandings
through • Reseracher tries to
Unstructured or control events as
semi-structured much as possible.
techniques e.g. • Structured techniques
individual depth such as online
interviews or group questionnaires, on-
discussions. street or telephone
interviews.
Qualitative research Quantitative research

• Helps to develop a • Used to recommend a

deeper final course of action.
understanding to
facilitate decision
making
To sum
up
 EPISTEMOLOGICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
• EPISTEMOLOGY: the study of
knowledge.
• Three main epistemological positions
in research :
1. Positivism
2. Social realism
3. Social constructivism
 positivism
• Social reality exists independently of
our perception of it
• The truth is out there
• Observation and measurement can
objectively study reality.
• Ignores politics, power, subjectivity,
meaning, etc.
 Social realism
• An external and measurable social reality
exists
• But it only exists through the mediation of
our perceptions of it
• And our actions
• Emphasizes subjectivity
 Social Constructivism
• Challenges the notion of science as a
legitimate concept
• Believe that it is impossible to be
objective
• Knowledge is and not

• knowledge is does not inhere – it is a

result of human choices
 Typ0s of qualitative research
• Ethnographic Research: used for
investigating cultures by collecting and
describing data that is intended to help in
the development of a theory. This method
is also called "ethnomethodology“
• Critical Social Research/ Semiotic
Studies: used by a researcher to
understand how people communicate and
develop symbolic meanings
 Types of qualitative research
• Historical Research : studies yesterday’s
stuff in today’s contexts
• Grounded Theory
• Phenomenology to identify phenomena
through how they are perceived by the
actors in a situation
• In depth Interviews
• Semiotic Analysis
Another way of classifying research
methods

Case centric
v/s
Variable centric research
 Case centric
• Begins with a case
• The case usually has a spatial, temporal
or conceptual boundary
• The case could be a village, an
occupation, tv shows of a ptclr period,
dress codes etc.
Eg. Anthropological ethnography

Strauss Margaret Mead

 Case centric research then
attempts to
• Discover the most significant variables
which can describe the case

• Or find the variables and values to find

commonalities between cases

• How are they diffnt? How are they

unique?
 Variable centric research
• Researcher begins with an idea about a
variable
• Or about the relatn. betn. variables
• Find the required number of cases to
explore this relationship
• Eg. Survey research
• Eg. A study of school students could
attempt to find the relationship between
academic success and family income
 Another way of classifying research
methods
APPROACH CC ANALYTICAL EPISTEMOLOGICAL
OR FRAME PERSPECTIVE
VC

IN DEPTH INT. CC FLUID SOCIAL REALISM/ CONSTRTVM

LIFE HIST. RESCH. CC FLUID SOCIAL REALISM

ETHNO. RESCH CC FLUID SOCIAL REALISM/ CONSTRTVM

FOCUS GRP. CC FLUID SOCIAL REALISM/ CONSTRTVM

SURVEY VC FIXED POSITIVISM/ SOCIAL REALISM

EXPMTL VC FIXED POSITIVISM

SEMIOTIC CC FLUID SOCIAL REALISM/ CONSTRTVM

AUTOETHNO. CC FLUID SOCIAL REALISM/ CONSTRTVM

CONTENT RSRCH. VC FIXED POSITIVISM /SOCIAL REALISM

 Two logical processes of doing
research
• Inductive research starts off with specific
observations and move toward general
ideas or theory to capture what they show.
(Qualitative)

Deductive Research starts with a general

idea or theory and then moves to test it by
looking at specific observations.
(Quantitative)
 Two logical processes of doing
research
ANALYTIC INDUCTION HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Inductive – bottom up in Deductive – top down in
building theory testing theory
Start with cases and examine Begin with a theory or
variables and values required hypothesis about relatns betn
variables and seeks to test
this proposition across a
range of cases

Explores a few cases in depth Tests a few variables across a

large number of cases
Emphasizes the richness of Emphasizes the parsimony of
accounts accounts
 KARL POPPER (1902-1994)

• Are we adding to
existing knowledge?
• Instead of
attempting to verify,
let’s try to falsify
• The hypothetico-
deductive method
CHOOSING WHICH METHODS
TO USE
• DO YOU WANT TO ANALYSE OR
DEDUCE?
• Are you looking for numbers or
observations?
• Are you verifying data? Use quantitative
methods
• Are you studying beliefs, attitudes,
perspectives, behaviour, context? Use
qualitative methods
 QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

WAS IT 6735646978546 AUDITORY, VISUAL OR

OR 4799843289796? KINESTHETIC?
 USING BOTH

(In surveying) The tracing and measurement of a series or network of

triangles in order to determine the distances and relative positions of
points spread over a territory or region, esp. by measuring the length of
one side of each triangle and deducing its angles and the length of the
other two sides by observation from this baseline
The use of a combination of assessment
methods in a study. Eg. an assessment
that incorporated surveys, interviews,
and observations.
 CH
E AR
E S S
R THIC
E
Moral philosophy, moral philosophy, moral
philosophy, moral philosophy, moroll
philosophy, moral philowsuppy, moral
philosoapy
In this case, the ethics are

n a l
s i o
fe s
P ro
 Or perhaps
•
norms for conduct that
distinguish between acceptable
and unacceptable behavior
The American Sociological
Association advises
• Professional Competence
• Integrity
• Professional and
Scientific Responsibility
• Respect for people’s
rights, dignity and
diversity
• Social responsibility
 Therefore…….
• Stick to high technical standards
• Ensure your own competence for the
research task (eg. Language, etc.)\
• No discrimination, exploitation,
harassment
• Avoidance of conflict of interests
• Protection of confidentiality
• Seeking informed consent
 thics – main points

1. Permissions to research
– Approval from authorities (if
necessary)
– Informed consent from participants
 Informed consent means?
• Consent = Free will
• Informed = tell them…..
1. The porpoise of the research
2. What you’re going to do with the results
3. Answer their questions
4. Ask their permission
5. Right to Refuse
6. Right to withdraw at any stage
 Especially when dealing with
sensitive issues
• Prepare a PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
SHEET
• Obtain their signature on a consent form if
necessary
2.CONFIDENTIALITY
• Don’t leave interview notes and
questionnaires lying around
• Completed notes and questionnaires
should never contain the names of the
respondents
• Assign a code to each note or
questionnaire and keep a list of codes
identifying the participants locked up.
 Never gossip to other
researchers or participants
about the personal life of the
participants
Rememba: youre dealing with
Participants People
and and
not not
subjects Guinea pigs
 How to minimize risk of harm

• Specify a minimum age

• Specify a minimum amount of
elapsed time between the last
experience and the research
participation (eg. In cases of
attempted suicide)
 More ways to minimize risks
• Explicitly discuss the potential for distress
• Plan something in advance – arrange for a
more comfortable setting
• Remind participants that they can decline
whenever they wish to
• Invite them to bring a support person if
they are apprehensive
• Contact authorities or support agencies in
time of emergency
 3. Deception
• Is deception warranted in research?
• Behaviour of participants under observation
(recruitment, Institutions for the Insane,
tribes)
 Deception
• Justified by
• Importance of the research project
• Lack of availability of other data collection
strategies
Albert Bandura’s 1960-63
expmt.
 deception

This amounts to eavesdropping and hearsay

 FEEDBACK
• Look for non verbal cues for
discomfort
• Eg. Drumming on the table with fingers, change in voice, tone, speed
or volume, avoiding eye contact, fidgeting, toe-fiddling, repeated
frowning

• Give positive feedback –

encouraging expressions and
responses to motivate the
cooperation of the respondent
• Respond but don’t react
 RESPONSIBLE
PUBLICATION
• What are participants keen to see in your
report?
• What do they definitely not want in your
report?

Where’s my
pic?
Respect for intellectual property

Give credit where it’s due

 DEALING WITH DATA
DIFFERENT FOR QUALITATIVE
AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS
 remember
Everything can be measured

Even those things that can’t be

measured

All information is data (words or

numbers)

All data can be categorised as

qualities
There are measurement scales
like…..
Ratio, interval, ordinal, nominal,
binary,etc.
 Communicating research

Words
a. Short
b. Accurate
c. Unambiguous
d. necessary
 Sentences
a. Active voice
b. Direct
c. Keep related words together (eg.
Adjectives with their nouns,etc.)
d. Past tense
e. Break rules wherever absolutely
necessary
 PARAGRAPHS
• THE TOPIC SENTENCE
• THE LAST SENTENCE
• THEMATIC DIVISIONS
• KEEP THEM SHORT
 Writing style
• Be consistent
• Stick to the same style of citation
• Be very particular about
– Spacing
– Font size
– Pagination
– Punctuation
• Use Footnotes only for citation as far as
possible
• APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago
 Apa citation style
• Statements followed by the citation in parentheses.

(Exact Quote)
"...mothers who are overly strict and harshly punitive... who strongly
show their anger or disappointment with their children, are likely to impede
their
children's prosocial development" (Hastings et al., 2000, p. 543).

(Exact Quote -- Electronic Source - No page numbers given. Give section

and paragraph.)
"...mothers who are extremely strict ...may impede their children's prosocial
development (Hastings et al., 2000, Conclusion section, para.4).

(Paraphrase)
Extremely critical mothers might warp children's social development
(Hastings et al., 2000).
 Apa citation style
examples:
• For a book:

Gladding, S.T. (2005). Counseling as an art : The creative arts in

counseling. Alexandria, VA:
American Counseling Association.

• For a video:
Sinno, J., Longley, J. (Producers), & Longley, J. (Director).
(2007). Iraq
in fragments [DVD]. (Available from Typecast Films, Seattle, WA)
Comparison of SOURCE CITATIONS
in three different styles
CHOOSE A PTCLR STYLE
AND …….
 The report

• Narrow your conclusions down to two basic

all-encompassing, summary sentences
• Get someone else to proof read
• Leave out doubtful data or conclusions
 Every report usually has this:
1. Title
2. Contents 7. Methods
3. Acknowledgements 8. The Study
4. Abstract 9. Results
5. Introduction 10. Discussion
6. Literature Review 11. Recommendations
12. Appendices
13. References
 Difference between

• List of works cited • Bibliography

 Remember the
‘S.U.C.C.E.S.S.’ model
• Simple — find the core of any
idea
• Unexpected — grab people's
attention by surprising them From ‘Made To Stick’ by
• Concrete — make sure an idea
Chip and Dan Heath
can be grasped and remembered
later
• Credible — give an idea
believability
• Emotional — help people see the
importance of an idea
• Stories — empower people to use
an idea through narrative
This presentation is