NERVOUS SYSTEM

BY
DR. DAISY ABRAHAM
PG COLLEGE OF NURSING
BHILAI(CG)
 INTRODUCTION

• The nervous system is a network of neurons whose main

feature is to transmit information between all the
different parts of the human body.
• The important functions of the nervous system are
regulation of vital body functions (heartbeat, breathing,
digestion)
 sensation and body movements.
consciousness, cognition, behaviour and memories
DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Central nervous system (CNS) is the integration and

command center of the body
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS) represents the conduit
between the CNS and the body. It is further subdivided
into
the somatic nervous system (SNS)
autonomic nervous system (ANS).
 KEY FACTS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
Definition A network of neurons that sends, receives and
modulates neural impulses between different body
parts.

Divisions Central nervous system

Peripheral nervous system

Central nervous system Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system Spinal and cranial nerves.

Functional divisions:
- Somatic nervous system
- Autonomic nervous system; sympathetic,
parasympathetic and enteric divisions
STRUCTURE OF NEURON
 NEURON

• Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system.

• They receive and transmit signals to different parts of the

body.

• There are about 100 billion in the brain and 13.5 million in
the spinal cord.

• The body’s neurons take up and send out electric and

chemical signals (electrochemical energy) to other neurons.
 NEURON

PARTS OF NEURON
Dendrites
• These are branch-like structures that receive
messages from other neurons and allow the
transmission of messages to the cell body.
Axon
• Axon is a tube-like structure that carries electrical
impulse from the cell body to the axon terminals
that pass the impulse to another neuron.
 NEURON
Cell Body
• Each neuron has a cell body with a nucleus, Golgi body,
endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria and other
components.
• Also known as a soma, the cell body is the core section
of the neuron.
• The cell body contains genetic information, maintains
the neuron's structure, and provides energy to drive
activities.
• Like other cell bodies, a neuron's soma contains a
nucleus and specialized organelles..
 NEURON
• Each large axon is surrounded by Schwann cells in the
peripheral nervous system.
• The membranes of these cells consist of a fat (lipoprotein)
called myelin.
• The membranes are wrapped tightly around the axon,
forming a multilayered sheath.
• This myelin sheath resembles insulation, such as that
around an electrical wire. Nerve impulses travel much
faster in nerves with a myelin sheath than in those
without one.
 NEURON

Synapse
• It is the chemical junction between the
terminal of one neuron and the
dendrites of another neuron.
TYPES OF NEURONS(BASED ON STRUCTURE)
TYPES OF NEURONS(BASED ON STRUCTURE)

Unipolar neurons
• These neurons have a single long axon that is responsible
for sending electrical signals.
• A unipolar neuron is a neuron in which only one process
which extends from the cell body. Then it branches to form
dendritic and axonal processes
• Located in spinal and cranial nerve ganglia
TYPES OF NEURONS(BASED ON STRUCTURE)

Pseudo-unipolar neurons
• A unipolar neuron has one axon which extends into dendrites,
though this splits into two parts in pseudounipolar neurons
• Located in spinal cord and in the ganglia of certain cranial nerves.
TYPES OF NEURONS(BASED ON STRUCTURE)

Bipolar neurons
• Bipolar neurons have two extensions extending from the cell body.
• These neurons send signals and receive information from the world.
• Located in central neurons of the retina
TYPES OF NEURONS(BASED ON STRUCTURE)

Multipolar neurons
• These neurons have a single axon and symmetrical dendrites
that extend from it.
• These neurons are able to receive impulses from multiple
neurons via dendrites.
• Found in olfactory epithelium & the retina of the eye
TYPES OF NEURONS(BASED ON STRUCTURE)

Pyramidal neurons
• It has a conic shaped soma, or cell body, after which the neuron is
named.
• It has a single axon, a large apical dendrite & multiple basal dendrites
• It is found in the cerebral cortex
PYRAMIDAL NEURONS
TYPES OF NEURONS(BASED ON STRUCTURE)

Purkinje neurons
• Purkinje neurons have multiple dendrites that fan out from the cell
body.
• Found in cerebellum of brain
PURKINJE NEURON
TYPES OF NEURONS(BASED ON FUNCTION)

• Sensory nerves carry sensory impulses from the body to the

central nervous system. For instance, if you picked up a hot
coal, sensory neurons with endings in your fingertips would
convey the information to your CNS that it was really hot.
• Motor nerves carry motor impulses from the central
nervous system to muscles of the body. For instance, if you
picked up a hot coal, it motor neurons innervating the
muscles in your fingers would cause your hand to let go.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SENSORY & MOTOR NEURON

SENSORY NEURON MOTOR NEURON

Neurons that carry sensory impulse from sensory organs A neuron that carries motor impulses from the central
to the central nervous system are known as sensory nervous system to specific effectors is known as motor
neurons neurons.

They are located in the dorsal root ganglion of the spinal They are located in the ventral root ganglion of the spinal
nerve cord.

It is unipolar It is multipolar

Comprises of a short axon Comprises of a long axon

An adult has an average of 10 million sensory nerves in Half million of motor neurons are found in the body
the body

Found in eyes, skin, ears, tongue and nose Found in muscles and glands
TYPES OF NEURONS(BASED ON FUNCTION)

Interneurons
• They are the most abundant neurons in the body.
• The interneurons sit in the middle of motor & sensory
neurons.
• They are responsible for relaying electrical signals.
• Interneurons act as traffic controllers, sitting in the middle
of the neurologic pathway and coordinating the flow of
information.
 FUNCTIONS OF NEURON

• The main function of neurons is to transmit signals or

impulses throughout the body.
• Dendrites, which arise from the cell body or soma receive
signals or impulses and transmit them to the cell body of
another neuron.
• The cell body further extends down to the axon which has
a covering of myelin sheath.
 FUNCTIONS OF NEURON

• To prevent short-circuiting in the neurons, the myelin

sheath acts as an insulator.
• The impulses jump through small nodes in the myelin
sheath called Nodes of Ranvier and thus reach the axon
terminals.
• At the junction of two neurons, two types of synapses are
formed chemical or electrical synapses through which
impulses are transmitted further.
 FUNCTIONS OF NEURON

• A neuron's function involves sending electrical impulses

and chemical signals to and from the brain.
• Neurons complete this task using a process called "action
potential."
• Action potential is the quick flow of electrical voltage
from the neuron down the axon.
• This voltage allows information to be transmitted from
neuron to neuron all over the body.
 FUNCTIONS OF NEURON

• Neurons send signals using action potentials.

• An action potential is a shift in the neuron’s potential
electric energy caused by the flow of charged particles in
and out of the membrane of the neuron.
• When an action potential is generated, it’s carried along
the axon to a presynaptic ending.
• Action potentials can trigger both chemical and electrical
synapses.
• Synapses are locations where neurons can pass these
electrical and chemical messages between them
 FUNCTIONS OF NEURON

Chemical synapses
• In a chemical synapse, the neuron releases of chemical
messengers called neurotransmitters.
• These molecules cross the synaptic cleft and bind to
receptors in the postsynaptic ending of a dendrite.
• Neurotransmitters can trigger a response in the
postsynaptic neuron, causing it to generate an action
potential of its own.
 FUNCTIONS OF NEURON

Electrical synapses
• Electrical synapses can only excite.
• These synapses form when two neurons are connected
by a gap junction.
• This gap is much smaller than a chemical synapse and is
made up of ion channels that help transmit a positive
electrical signal.
 BUMPS AND GROOVES OF THE BRAIN

• In humans, the lobes of the brain are divided by a number of bumps

and grooves.
• These are known as gyri (bumps) and sulci (groves or fissures).
 BRAIN GYRI AND SULCI

• Gyri and sulci are the folds and indentations in the brain
that give it its wrinkled appearance.
• Folding of the cerebral cortex creates gyri and sulci which
separate brain regions and increase the brain's surface area
and cognitive ability.
• Gyri and sulci form boundaries between the lobes of the
brain and divide it into two hemispheres.
 BRAIN GYRI AND SULCI

• The medial longitudinal fissure is the sulcus that

separates the left and right brain hemispheres. The corpus
callosum is found within this fissure.
• An example of a gyrus is Broca's gyrus, an area of the
brain that orchestrates speech production.
PARTS OF BRAIN
 BRAIN
• The brain is a complex organ that controls thought,
memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing,
temperature, hunger and every process that regulates our
body.
• Together, the brain and spinal cord that extends from it
make up the central nervous system, or CNS.
• Weighing about 3 pounds in the average adult, the brain is
about 60% fat. The remaining 40% is a combination of
water, protein, carbohydrates and salts. It contains blood
vessels and nerves, including neurons and glial cells.
GRAY MATTER AND WHITE MATTER

• In the brain, gray matter refers to the darker, outer

portion, while white matter describes the lighter, inner
section underneath.
• In the spinal cord, this order is reversed: The white
matter is on the outside, and the gray matter sits within.
• Gray matter is primarily composed of neuron somas (the
round central cell bodies), and white matter is mostly
made of axons (the long stems that connects neurons
together) wrapped in myelin (a protective coating).
 PARTS OF THE BRAIN AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

The brain can be divided into the cerebrum, brainstem and

cerebellum.
 CEREBRUM
• Largest part of the brain and is composed of right and left
hemispheres. The cerebrum (front of brain) comprises gray
matter (the cerebral cortex) and white matter at its center.
• It performs higher functions like
interpreting touch
vision and hearing
Speech
Reasoning
Emotions
Learning
fine control of movement.
 RIGHT BRAIN – LEFT BRAIN

• The cerebrum is divided into two halves: the right and left
hemispheres
• They are joined by a bundle of fibers called the corpus
callosum that transmits messages from one side to the other.
• Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.
• The left hemisphere controls speech, comprehension,
arithmetic, and writing. The left hemisphere is dominant in
hand use and language
• The right hemisphere controls creativity, spatial ability,
artistic, and musical skills
THE RIGHT AND LEFT HEMISPHERES
 PARTS OF THE BRAIN AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

• Cerebellum: is located under the cerebrum. Its function is to

coordinate muscle movements, maintain posture, and balance
• Brainstem: acts as a relay center connecting the cerebrum and
cerebellum to the spinal cord.
• It performs many automatic functions such as breathing, heart rate,
body temperature, wake and sleep cycles, digestion, sneezing,
coughing, vomiting, and swallowing.
 BRAINSTEM

• The brainstem (middle of brain) connects the cerebrum

with the spinal cord. The brainstem includes the midbrain,
the pons and the medulla.
Midbrain. The midbrain (or mesencephalon) is a very
complex structure.
• These are responsible for hearing and movement
• The midbrain also contains the substantia nigra, is rich in
dopamine neurons and part of the basal ganglia, which
enables movement and coordination.
 BRAINSTEM

• Pons. The pons is the origin for four of the 12 cranial nerves, which
enable a range of activities such as tear production, chewing, blinking,
focusing vision, balance, hearing and facial expression.
• The pons is the connection between the midbrain and the medulla.
 BRAINSTEM

• Medulla. At the bottom of the brainstem, the medulla is where the

brain meets the spinal cord.
• The medulla is essential to survival. Functions of the medulla regulate
many bodily activities, including heart rhythm, breathing, blood flow,
and oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
• The medulla produces reflexive activities such as sneezing, vomiting,
coughing and swallowing.
 SPINAL CORD

• The spinal cord extends from the bottom of the medulla and
through a large opening in the bottom of the skull.
• Supported by the vertebrae, the spinal cord carries messages to and
from the brain and the rest of the body.
LOBES OF THE BRAIN
 FRONTAL LOBE

The frontal lobe is separated from the parietal lobe by a

space called the central sulcus, and from the temporal
lobe by the lateral sulcus.

• Personality, behavior, emotions

• Judgment, planning, problem solving
• Brain’s scriptwriter, puts thoughts into words,regulates
breathing pattern while speaking(Broca’s area)
• Body movement (motor strip)
• Intelligence, concentration, self awareness
 PARIETAL LOBE

• Interprets language, words

• Sense of touch, pain, temperature (sensory strip)
• Interprets signals from vision, hearing, motor, sensory and memory
• Spatial and visual perception(ability to recognize an object’s physical
location as well as physical relationship between objects)
 OCCIPITAL LOBE

• Interprets vision (color, light, movement)

TEMPORAL LOBE
• Understanding spoken & written language,speech
production (Wernicke’s area)
• Memory
• Hearing
• Sequencing and organization
 NERVE IMPULSES

• A nerve impulse, like a lightning strike, is an electrical

phenomenon.
• A nerve impulse occurs because of a difference in electrical
charge across the plasma membrane of a neuron.
• Sodium is the principal ion in the fluid outside of cells, and
potassium is the principal ion in the fluid inside of cells.
• These differences in concentration create an electrical
gradient (electrical potential that acts on an ion to drive the
movement of the ion in one or another direction)across the
cell membrane, called resting potential.
 RESTING POTENTIAL

• When a neuron is not actively transmitting a nerve

impulse, it is in a resting state, ready to transmit a nerve
impulse.
• During the resting state, the sodium-potassium pump
maintains a difference in charge across the cell membrane
of the neuron.
• The sodium-potassium pump is a mechanism of active
transport(requires energy for the movement of molecules
from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration) that moves sodium ions (Na+) out of cells
and potassium ions (K+) into cells.
 ACTION POTENTIAL

• A nerve impulse is a sudden reversal of the electrical

gradient across the plasma membrane of a resting
neuron.
• The reversal of charge is called an action potential.
• It begins when the neuron receives a chemical signal
from another cell or some other type of stimulus.
• If the stimulus is strong enough to reach threshold, an
action potential will take place is a cascade along the
axon.
 ACTION POTENTIAL

1. Depolarization
As a result of the slight change in charge across the membrane
voltage-gated sodium channels open and positively charged sodium
ions (Na+) rush into the neuron. As these ions rush in, the inside of
the cell membrane becomes positively charged as compared to the
outside of the cell.
 ACTION POTENTIAL

2. Repolarization
As a result of the positive charge created by depolarization, voltage-
gated potassium channels open, and positively charged potassium
ions (K+) rush out of the cell, reversing the polarity so that the inside
of the cell is now negatively charged as compared to its surroundings.
 ACTION POTENTIAL

3. Refractory/Recovery Period
• The sodium potassium pump works to restore resting potential by
moving sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell
in a 3:2 ratio.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM(PNS)

• PNS includes 12 pairs of cranial nerves & 31 pairs of spinal

nerves
• These pairs provide afferent impulses to CNS and carry
efferent impulses to muscles, glands & blood vessals
• The PNS include a sensory division & motor division which are
part of somatic system
 SENSORY (AFFERENT) DIVISION

• The sensory (also known as afferent) division of the

nervous system contains nerves that come from the viscera
(internal organs) and the somatic areas (muscles, tendons,
ligaments, ears, eyes and skin).
• These nerves conduct impulses to the PNS/CNS providing
information on what is happening within and outside the
body. The senses include; hearing, sight, touch etc.
•
 MOTOR (EFFERENT) DIVISION

• The motor (also known as efferent) division of the

nervous system contains motor nerves.
• These nerves conduct impulses from the CNS and PNS to
the muscles, organs and glands’ effecting what happens
in those tissues.
 SENSORY & MOTOR NEURON

Sensory Neuron Motor Neuron

Neurons that carry sensory impulse from A neuron that carries motor impulses from the
sensory organs to the central nervous system central nervous system to specific effectors is
are known as sensory neurons known as motor neurons.

They are located in the dorsal root ganglion of They are located in the ventral root ganglion of
the spinal nerve the spinal cord.

It is unipolar It is multipolar
 SENSORY & MOTOR NEURON

Sensory Neuron Motor Neuron

Comprises of a short axon Comprises of a long axon

An adult has an average of 10 million Half million of motor neurons are found
sensory nerves in the body in the body

Found in eyes, skin, ears, tongue and Found in muscles and glands
nose
 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The autonomic nervous system is a component of the peripheral

nervous system that regulates involuntary physiologic processes
including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and
sexual arousal.
• It contains three anatomically distinct divisions: sympathetic,
parasympathetic, and enteric
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• This system is further divided into three branches: the

sympathetic system, the parasympathetic system, and the
enteric nervous system
• The autonomic nervous system is also made up of a third
component known as the enteric nervous system, which is
confined to the gastrointestinal tract.
• The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous
system regulates the flight-or-fight responses. This division
also performs such tasks as relaxing the bladder, speeding
up heart rate, and dilating eye pupils.
 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous

system helps maintain normal body functions and conserves
physical resources. This division also performs such tasks as
controlling the bladder, slowing down heart rate, and constricting
eye pupils.
WORKING OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The autonomic nervous system operates by receiving

information from the environment and from other parts of the
body.
• The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems tend to have
opposing actions in which one system will stimulate a response
where the other will inhibit it
• Traditionally, stimulation has been thought to take place
through the sympathetic system while inhibition was thought
to occur via the parasympathetic system
WORKING OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The sympathetic system is viewed as a quickly responding

system that mobilizes the body for action where the
parasympathetic system is believed to act much more slowly
to dampen responses.
• The sympathetic nervous system will act to raise blood
pressure while the parasympathetic nervous system will act
to lower it. The two systems work in conjunction to manage
the body’s responses depending upon the situation and
need.
WORKING OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• For example, you are facing a threat and need to flee, the
sympathetic system will quickly mobilize your body to take action.
Once the threat has passed, the parasympathetic system will then
start to dampen these responses, slowly returning your body to its
normal, resting state.
 FUNCTIONS OF ANS

• Digestion
• Blood pressure
• Heart rate
• Urination and defecation
• Pupillary response
 FUNCTIONS OF ANS

• Breathing (respiratory) rate

• Sexual response
• Body temperature
• Metabolism
• Electrolyte balance
• Production of body fluids including sweat and saliva
• Emotional responses
 FUNCTIONS OF ANS

• The autonomic nerve pathways connect different organs

to the brain stem or spinal cord. There are also two key
neurotransmitters, or chemical messengers, that are
important for communication within the autonomic
nervous system:
• Acetylcholine is often used in the parasympathetic system
to have an inhibiting effect.
• Norepinephrine often works within the sympathetic
system to have a stimulating effect on the body.
 LIMBIC SYSTEM

• Humans express emotions that help to shape an individual’s

behavior.
• The region of the brain believed to be responsible for these
activities formed a physical border between
the hypothalamus and the cerebrum.
• Therefore, it was called the limbic system; arising from the Latin
word limbus, meaning edge.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE LIMBIC SYSTEM

Five “F’s”:
• Feeding (satiety & hunger)
• Forgetting (memory)
• Fighting (emotional response)
• Family (sexual reproduction and maternal instincts)
• Fornicating (sexual arousal)
 LIMBIC LOBE

It is the first significant lobe of the limbic system. The two

parts of this region include:
• Cingulate gyrus: It regulates both autonomic (automatic)
and conscious function. Its functions include:
• An increase in heart rate during a threat in the
environment.
• Taking voluntary choices, such as the decision to react
to a threat by fighting or running away.

• Parahippocampal gyrus: It deals with spatial memory or

memory. It has a role in dealing with location and
navigation to reach a specific place.
 THALAMUS

• The key function of the thalamus involves detecting and transmitting

senses, such as sight, sound, taste, and touch
• The thalamus also has a role in pain perception
Hypothalamus

• It is the vital portion of the limbic system. Hypothalamus is

responsible for producing various hormones required by the
body. It also has various stations, which control the following
functions:
• Controlling water levels in the body
• Regulating sleep cycles
• Maintaining body temperature
• Feeding behavior
Amygdala
• The development of feelings of bonding of a
mother to a child.
• The development of memories related to emotional
events and emergencies.
• Preparing the body for an emergency (e.g., being
startled).
• Storing memories and events for future
acknowledgment
• Pleasure and sexual arousal.
• Development of fear emotion.
• Hippocampus
• The hippocampus is a horn-shaped structure present in the limbic
system. The central function of the hippocampus is to:
• Process new information and form long-term memories, which are
then stored in the other regions throughout the brain.
• Help us associate memories with various senses (e.g., the relation
between Christmas and gingerbread).
• Assist in learning new information.