NETWORKING

FORM 5
TOPICS TO BE COVERED
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model
 Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP)/Internet Protocol(IP)
Model
 IP Addressing
 Domain Name Systems
 Routing Protocols
 1. Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
Model

Objectives
Design principles
Advantages
OSI Model( Open System Interconnection
Reference Model).
The osi model is designed to overcome the
interconnection difficulties and low efficiency
issues associated with using various protocols
by defining an open and interconnected
network.
The OSI reference model forms basis for
computer networking communication.
Principles of the designs of the OSI model.
- There are no clear boundaries to facilitate
understanding.
- Each layer implements specific functions and does
not affect each other.
- Each layer is a service provider and a service user.
- Each layer provides services to its upper layer and
uses services provided by its lower layer.
- The division of layers encourages the development
of standardized protocols.
7 Layers of the OSI Model
APDU Application layer 7 Provides communications
Top between applications.
three PPDU Presentation layer 6 Processes data formats and
layers encrypts data.

SPDU 5 Establishes, maintains, and manages

Session layer
sessions.

Segment Establishes E2E connections for hosts.

Transport layer 4

Performs addressing and routing.

Bottom Packet Network layer 3
four
layers Provides media access and link
Frame Data Link layer 2
management.

Bit Physical layer 1 Transmits bit streams.

In the OSI model, layer 7,6 and 5 units of data are called
Protocol Data Units(PDU) and they are called using the
layer which they are as follows:
7 Application Layer: Application Protocol Data Units(APDU)
6 Presentation Layer: Presentation Protocol Data Units.
(PPDU)
5 Session Layer: Session Protocol Data Units.(SPDU)
4 Transport layer: Data is called Segment
3 Network Layer Data is called Packets
2 Data link Layer Data is called Frame
1 Physical Layer Data is called Bits Streams
Each layer of the OSI model encapsulates data to
ensure that the data can reach the destination
accurately and can be accepted and executed by
the host terminal. A node encapsulates the data to
be transmitted by using a specific protocol header
for transmission . When data is processed at a layer,
packets are also added to the tail of the data, which
is also called encapsulation.
Peer Layer Communications
• Each layer uses the services provided by the lower layer to
communicate with the peer layer.
Application APDU Application
layer layer
Presentation PPDU Presentation
layer layer
SPDU
Session layer Session layer

Transport Segment Transport

layer layer
Packet
Network layer Network layer
Host A Host B
Data Link Frame Data Link
layer layer
Bit
Physical layer Physical layer
All People Seem To Need Data Processing
7 Application Layer
The application layer provides interfaces for
operating systems or network applications to
access network services. Initiates or accepts a
request, provide network applications like data
transfer, messaging, operating system
functions, etc
6 Presentation layer
The Presentation Layer is generally responsible for how
user information is presented. It converts data from a
given syntax to one that is suitable for use in the OSI
system. That is, the layer provides a formatted
representation and data conversion services. Deals in how
information is presented, e.g ASCII, adds formatting or
data transformation,(e.g. from ASCII to Unicode), data
compression and data encryption and decryption.
5 Session Layer
The session layer provides a mechanism for
establishing and maintaining communications
between applications including access verification
and session management eg verification of user
login by a server is completed at the session layer. It
is also responsible for file transfer session, adds
traffic-flow control information, etc. Session
Protocol Data Units(SPDU) are transmitted from
this level.
4 Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for providing
effective and reliable services to users. Allows error
correction during transmission, maintains flow
control, allows data recovery, allows routing,
addressing and multiplexing of signals. Makes sure
that data has been routed to the correct destination
determining the correct routes to be taken. Data at
this layer is called Segment
3 Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for forwarding packets and
checks the network topology to determine the optimal route from
the source to the destination for data packets. A network layer
device calculates the optimal route to the destination by running
a routing protocol such as (RIP), identifies the next networking
device (hop) to which the data packet should be forwarded,
encapsulates the data packet by using the network layer protocol,
and sends the data to the next hop. Adds sequencing and address
information, sets logical protocols, creating frames (consisting of
address fields, control field, date, and error control field)
Data Link Layer
The main tasks of the datalink layer are to
control the physical layer and allow it to an
error free link to the network layer, detect and
correct any errors and perform traffic control. In
short, it provides error-checking and formats
data for physical transmission, type of network
and packet sequencing is defined, used for
synchronization.
1 Physical Layer
The physical layer involves the transmission of bit strams
over a transmission medium and is fundamental in the OSI
model. It implements the mechanical and electrical
features required for data transmission and focuses only on
how to transmit bit streams to the peer end through
different physical links . The information contained in
each bit stream, devices used at this layer include
repeaters, hubs. It is the level of actual hardware. Define
physical characteristics of network e.g connections,
wiring, voltage signals, etc
Advantages of the OSI reference model.
- Simplifies network operations
- Provides standard interfaces that support plug-and-play and
are compatible with different vendors.
- Enables vendors to design interoperable network devices and
accelerate the development of data communications and
networks.
- Prevents a change in one area of network from affecting other
areas, therefore, each area can be updated quickly and
independently.
- Simplifies network issues for easier learning and operations.
TCP/IP Stack(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol)
 protocol are rules governing the transmission of
data
 data is divided into packets to which addressing
information, error correction code and identification
are added
 the packets travel to their destination over the
network and the receiving PC checks for mistakes and
pieces the data together in the right order
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol Internet
Protocol)
TCP: It ensures that data is transmitted
accurately
IP: It ensures that data is transmitted to its
correct address (IP address). Every device on
the internet has its IP address. It also ensures
that packets are rearranged to the original
message on arrival of their destination.
The features that stood out during the research, which
led to making the TCP/IP reference model were:
 Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more
machines to a network was easy.
 The network was robust, and connections remained
intact until the source and destination machines were
functioning.
The overall idea was to allow one application on one
computer to talk to(send data packets) another application
running on different computer.
Functions of Each Layer of the TCP/IP
Application HTTP, Telnet, FTP, TFTP, and DNS Provides network interfaces for
layer applications.

TCP/UDP Establishes E2E connections for

Transport layer hosts.

ICMP & IGMP Performs addressing and

Internet layer IP routing.
ARP & RARP

Network Performs physical media

access layer Ethernet, 802.3, PPP, HDLC, and FR access.
Layer 4. Application Layer
Application layer is the top most layer of four layered TCP/IP model.
Application layer is present on the top of the Transport layer.
Application layer defines TCP/IP application protocols and how host
programs interface with Transport layer services to use the network.
Application layer includes all the higher-level protocols like DNS
(Domain Naming System), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol),
Telnet, SSH, FTP (File Transfer Protocol), TFTP (Trivial File Transfer
Protocol), SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol), SMTP
(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) , DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), X Windows, RDP (Remote Desktop
Protocol) etc.
Layer 3. Transport Layer
Transport Layer is the third layer of the four layer
TCP/IP model. The position of the Transport layer is
between Application layer and Internet layer. The
purpose of Transport layer is to permit devices on the
source and destination hosts to carry on a conversation.
Transport layer defines the level of service and status of
the connection used when transporting data.
The main protocols included at Transport layer are TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol).
Layer 2. Internet Layer
Internet Layer is the third layer of the four layer TCP/IP
model. The position of Internet layer is between
Network Access Layer and Transport layer. Internet
layer pack data into data packets known as IP datagrams,
which contain source and destination address (logical
address or IP address) information that is used to forward
the datagrams between hosts and across networks. The
Internet layer is also responsible for routing of IP
datagrams.
Packet switching network depends upon a
connectionless internetwork layer. This layer is
known as Internet layer. Its job is to allow hosts to
insert packets into any network and have them to
deliver independently to the destination. At the
destination side data packets may appear in a
different order than they were sent. It is the job of the
higher layers to rearrange them in order to deliver
them to proper network applications operating at the
Application layer.
The main protocols included at Internet layer
are IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet
Control Message Protocol), ARP (Address
Resolution Protocol), RARP (Reverse Address
Resolution Protocol) and IGMP (Internet Group
Management Protocol).
Layer 1. Network Access Layer
Network Access Layer is the first layer of the
four layer TCP/IP model. Network Access
Layer defines details of how data is physically
sent through the network, including how bits are
electrically or optically signaled by hardware
devices that interface directly with a network
medium, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, or
twisted pair copper wire.
The protocols included in Network Access Layer are
Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25, Frame Relay etc.
The most popular LAN architecture among those
listed above is Ethernet. Ethernet uses an Access
Method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection) to access the media,
when Ethernet operates in a shared media. An
Access Method determines how a host will place
data on the medium.
IN CSMA/CD Access Method, every host has
equal access to the medium and can place data
on the wire when the wire is free from network
traffic. When a host wants to place data on the
wire, it will check the wire to find whether
another host is already using the medium. If
there is traffic already in the medium, the host
will wait and if there is no traffic, it will place
the data in the medium.
But, if two systems place data on the
medium at the same instance, they will
collide with each other, destroying the
data. If the data is destroyed during
transmission, the data will need to be
retransmitted. After collision, each host will
wait for a small interval of time and again
the data will be retransmitted.
Encapsulation and Decapsulation Processes of the TCP/IP

Sender Recipient
Encapsulation Decapsulation

App User data

Application Application layer
layer
TCP App User data
Transport layer Transport layer

IP TCP App User data Internet

Internet layer
layer

Network access Eth IP TCP App Network access layer

User data
layer

1010101101010100101010001110
Mapping Between TCP/IP and OSI
• The TCP/IP protocol stack has a simple hierarchical design and a clear mapping relationship with the OSI
model.

OSI TCP/IP

Application layer

Presentation layer Application layer

Session layer

Transport layer Transport layer

Network layer Internet layer

Data Link layer Network access layer

Physical layer
2. Explain the format of an IP address
IP addressing is a hardware-independent convention which in principle
allows every computer attached to the Internet to be given a unique logical
address
IP address
- an identifier for a computer or device on a TCP/IP network.
- TCP/IP protocol networks route messages based on the IP address of the
destination.
IP address Format
- The format of an IP address is a 32-bit numeric address written as four
numbers separated by periods with each number ranging from zero to 255
eg, 1.160.10.240 could be an IP address.
- The four numbers in an IP address are used in different ways to identify a
particular network and a host on that network.
Originally IP addresses were divided into five classes as shown below. Classes A, B and
C are the most important: the initial bits determine which class an address belongs to,
and the classes differ in how much of the address is taken up with the network address
and how much with the host address.
Class A - supports 16 million hosts on each of 126 networks
Class B - supports 65,000 hosts on each of 16,000 networks
Class C - supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks
- The number of unassigned Internet addresses is running out, therefore the
system based on classes A, B, and C is gradually being replaced by
adoption of IPv6.
- In IPv6 the IP address size is increased from 32 bits to 128 bits.

Static and Dynamic IP Addresses

An IP address can be static or dynamic.
- A static IP address will never change and it is a permanent Internet
address.
- A dynamic IP address is a temporary address that is assigned each time a
computer or device accesses the Internet.
3. Distinguish between public and private IP
addresses
Public (external) IP addresses
- A public (or external) IP address is the one issued by ISP (Internet Service
Provider) to identify a network to the outside world.
- It is an IP address that is unique throughout the entire Internet.
Private (internal) IP addresses
- Private IP address is an IP address that is reserved for internal use behind a
router or other Network Address Translation (NAT) device, apart from the
public.
- Router issues private (or internal) IP addresses to each network device inside
the network.
- This provides unique identification for devices that are within a home
network, such as computer, tablet, etc.
4. Explain the role of DNS
Domain names are alphanumeric names for IP addresses e.g., neon.cs.virginia.edu,
www.google.com, ietf.org
DNS
• is an Internet-wide distributed database that translates between domain names and IP
addresses
- A system which permits humans to use names and machines to use addresses
- a distributed database where data is maintained locally, but available globally
• DNS uses
– replication to achieve robustness
– caching to achieve adequate performance
• DNS is composed of namespace, name servers and resolvers
– a namespace - the database’s structure ie is a hierarchical and logical tree structure for
naming system
– name servers - store data from specific segments of the database, Answer questions from
resolvers
– resolvers - translate applications’ requests for data into DNS queries
- Interpret name server’s responses
Domain names
• Hosts and DNS domains are named based on their position in the domain
tree
• Every node in the DNS domain tree can be identified by a unique Fully
Qualified Domain Name (FQDN). The FQDN gives the position in the
DNS tree.
• A FQDN consists of labels
(“cs”,“virginia”,”edu”) separated by a period
(“.”)
• There can be a period (“.”) at the end.
• Each label can be up to 63 characters long
• FQDN contains characters, numerals, and dash
character (“-”)
• FQDNs are not case-sensitive
5 Describe Routing Information Protocol(RIP) and Open Shortest Path
First (OSPF) routing protocols
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
- is an interior gateway protocol that routers can use to exchange network
topology information.
- Typically used in small to medium-sized networks.
- uses distance vector i.e shares a list of distance-vectors with each of its
neighbours periodically
- A router sends the contents of its routing table to each of its adjacent
routers every 30 seconds.
- Each router computes new distances and replaces entries with new lower
hop counts
- When a route is removed from the routing table, it is flagged as unusable
by the receiving routers after 180 seconds, and removed from their tables
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
- An Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) for the Internet, used to
distribute IP routing information throughout a single Autonomous
System (AS) in an IP network.
- A link-state routing protocol, in which the routers exchange
topology information with their nearest neighbors.
- The topology information is flooded throughout the AS, so that
every router within the AS has a complete picture of the topology
of the AS.
- the complete knowledge of topology allows routers to calculate
routes that satisfy particular criteria.
- This picture is then used to calculate end-to-
end paths through the AS, normally using the
Dijkstra algorithm.
- the next hop address to which data is
forwarded is determined by choosing the best
end-to-end path to the eventual destination.
- It provides support for multiple paths of equal
cost.
- It provides a multi-level hierarchy (two-level for
OSPF) called "area routing," so that information
about the topology within a defined area of the AS is
hidden from routers outside this area which
increase the level of routing protection and a reduce
routing protocol traffic.
- All protocol exchanges can be authenticated so
that only trusted routers can join in the routing
exchanges for the AS.
Cloud Computing
Upper 6 content
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6. Differentiate cloud service models
- cloud computing is a distributed computing environment
that enables the users to access and exchange their
resources (applications and data) remotely and provides
services to use the remote hardware and software within a
network without the knowledge of technological
infrastructure
- Cloud computing is a paradigm of distributed computing
to provide the customers on-demand, utility based
computing services.
- Cloud itself consists of physical machines in the data
- Different cloud provider provides cloud services of different
abstraction level. E.g. Amazon EC2 enables the users to
handle very low level details where Google App-Engine
provides a development platform for the developers to
develop their applications.
Cloud computing is able to provide a variety of services at the
moment but main three services are:
Infrastructure-As-A-Service,
Platform-As-A-Service and
Software-As-A-Service also called a service model of Cloud
computing
Software as a service (SaaS)
- is a software distribution model in which a third-party
provider hosts applications and makes them available to
customers over the Internet.
- A service provider hosts the application at its data center and a
customer accesses it via a standard web browser.
There are a few major characteristics that apply to most SaaS
vendors:
 Updates are applied automatically without customer
intervention
 The service is purchased on a subscription basis
 No hardware is required to be installed by the customer
Platform as a Service (PaaS) or application platform as
a Service (aPaaS) or platform base service
- Provides a platform allowing customers to develop, run, and
manage applications without the complexity of building and
maintaining the infrastructure necessary for development and
launching of an application.
- Is whereby a third-party provider delivers hardware and
software tools required for application development to users over
the internet.
- PaaS frees users from having to install hardware and software to
develop or run a new application.
Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) or hardware as a
service (HaaS).
- a service model that delivers computer infrastructure on an
outsourced basis to support enterprise operations.
- provides virtualized computing resources (i.e provides hardware,
storage, servers and data center space or network components;
and may also include software.)over the internet
- IaaS provider provides policy-based services and is responsible
for housing, operating and maintaining the equipment it provides
for a client
PaaS vs. SaaS vs. IaaS
- With IaaS, a provider supplies the basic compute, storage and
networking infrastructure along with the hypervisor (the
virtualization layer). Users must then create virtual machines,
install operating systems, support applications and data, and handle
all of the configuration and management associated with those
tasks.
- With PaaS, a provider offers more of the application stack than
IaaS providers, adding operating systems, middleware (such as
databases) and other runtimes into the cloud environment.
- With SaaS, a provider offers an entire application stack. Users
simply log in and use the application that runs completely on the
provider's infrastructure.
7.Describe Cloud Types
Cloud Deployment Models/Types
There are three commonly-used cloud deployment models: private,
public, and hybrid with an additional model the community cloud, which
is less-commonly used.
A private cloud is built and managed within a single organization using
such software as VMWare, vCloud Director, or OpenStack.
- Used solely for the organization’s internal purpose therefore security
and network bandwidth are not critical issues for private cloud.
A public cloud is a set of computing resources provided by third-party
organizations. eg Amazon Web Services, Google AppEngine, and
Microsoft Azure.
- An organization rents cloud services from cloud providers on demand
A hybrid cloud is a mix of computing resources provided by both private
and public clouds.
- is composed of multiple internal or external clouds, a scenario like when
an organization moves to public cloud computing domain from its internal
private cloud
A community cloud shares computing resources across several
organizations, and can be managed by either organizational IT resources or
third-party providers.
▪ Cloud providers provide cloud services to the cloud users and cloud users
uses pay-as-you-go model to use these services.
▪ The cloud users develop their product using these services and deliver the
product to the end users.
ADVANTAGES OF CLOUD COMPUTING
1. Flexibility/Elasticity:
- Users can access computing resources as and when needed, without any human
interaction.
- Cloud users can use the resources on demand basis and pay as much as they use
2. Scalability Of Infrastructure.
- New nodes can be added or removed from the network as can physical servers,
with limited modifications to infrastructure set up and software. Cloud
architecture can scale horizontally or vertically according to the users
requirements.
3. Broad Network Access.
- promotes use of heterogeneous platforms (like mobile phones, laptops, and
PDAs).
4. Location Independence.
- Cloud interfaces are location independent and they can be accessed by
Web services and Web browsers, so that no knowledge about exact
location of the user is required which also gives high level of abstraction to
the users data.
5. Unlimited Storage.
- Storing information in the cloud gives almost unlimited storage capacity.
Hence no more need to worry about running out of storage space or
increasing current storage space availability.
6. Easy Access to Information.
- Once registered in the cloud environment one can access the information
from any location provided, there is an Internet connection.
7. Economies of Scale and Cost Effectiveness.
- Cloud implementations tend to be as large as possible in order
to take advantage of economies of scale.
- Large cloud deployments can often be located close to cheap
deployment to lower cost.
- It does not require upfront investment and much capital
expenditure as users may pay and use or pay for services and
capacity as they need them.
8. Backup and Recovery.
- Most cloud service providers are competent enough to handle
recovery of information which makes the entire process of
backup and recovery much simpler than other traditional
methods of data storage.
9. Reliability
- It improves the use of multiple sites which makes cloud
computing suitable for business continuity and disaster recovery.
10. Sustainability
- It improves resource utilization and makes the cloud
environment more efficient.
Questions
1. (a) Draw the diagram for the OSI Model. [7]
(b) Describe the following protocols as they are related to TCP/IP suite:
(i) TCP [2]
(ii) IP [2]
(iii) HTTP [2]
(c) State which layer each of the protocols in (b) belong to. [3]
2. (a) Explain the term Domain Name System (DNS). [2]
(b) Distinguish between private IP and public IP. [2]
3. Describe the layer in the protocol stack which is responsible for finding a
communication partner on the network
4. Explain the activities performed at the Presentation layer
5. List and explain the Presentation layer protocols
6. Explain the function of the Session layer
7. List and explain Session layer protocols
8. Describe the layer which is responsible for multiplexing data from upper layers and
placing the data into a segment
9. Windowing is performed at the Transport layer. Explain what windowing is.
10. Describe the primary function of the Network layer
11. What are the two parts to a network address?
12. The Data Link layer is split into two sublayers. Name the sublayers.
13. a) Which layer is responsible for creating and disconnecting
virtual circuits
b)If your network diagnostic tool identifies a problem with the logical
addressing, what layer of the OSI model would you be
troubleshooting.
c) What layer would you troubleshoot when no link connectivity is
detected
d) If two network cards were suspected of having the same MAC
address, what layer would you troubleshoot to determine the
conflict.
15. One of your nodes requests a window size of 1. This is having
adverse effects on the network and you need to change it. What layer
of the OSI model is responsible for this