UNIT-I EVOLUTION OF

TELECOMMUNICATIONS

1
INTRODUCTION

 The exchange of information between two or many individuals is

called Communication.
 The word tele is a Greek word which means distance.

 Hence, Telecommunication means the exchange of

information between two distant places.

2
Evolution of telecommunications

4
INTRODUCTION

 Calling Subscriber: The one who initiates the call is referred

to as the Calling Subscriber .
 Called Subscriber: The one for whom the call is destined is
the Called Subscriber .

5
INTRODUCTION

History and Growth Telegraphy was

introduced in 1837 in Great Britain and in
1845 in France.

In March 1876, Alexander Graham Bell

invented and demonstrated his telephone
set and the possibility of long distance
voice communication .
Evolution of telecommunications

Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated the point-to-point

communication

 The point-to-point connection for establishing communication

requires the telephone sets to be linked using wires
 Point-to-point connection, for n entities, we need n(n-
1)/2 links
 Networks with point-to-point links among all the entities are
known as Fully Connected Networks
Evolution of telecommunications
Evolution of telecommunications
Switching Systems

 A switching system is variedly known as a switching office, a

switching centre, a telephone exchange, a switching node
or simply a switch.
 A switching system contains a number of switching
elements.
 When a subscriber wants to communicate with another a
connection is established between the two subscribers at
the switching system by using one or more switching
element.
 The functions performed by a switching system in
establishing and releasing connections are known as call
processing functions.
Evolution of telecommunications
Evolution of telecommunications

 Automatic switching systems can be classified

as
electromechanical and electronic.
 Electromechanical switching systems include step-by-step and
crossbar systems. The step-by step system is better known as
Strowger switching system .
 The control functions are disassociated from the switching
elements and placed in a separate subsystem called common
control subsystem.
Evolution of telecommunications

 In electronic switching systems, the control functions are

performed by a computer or a processor. Hence, these systems
are called stored program control (SPC).
 The switching scheme used by electronic switching systems
may be either space division switching or time division
switching.
 In analog switching, the sampled voltage levels are transmitted
as they are, whereas in digital switching. They are binary coded
and transmitted.
Evolution of telecommunications

 If the coded values are transferred during the same time

interval from input to output, the technique is called
space switching.
 If the values are stored and transferred to the output at a
later time interval, the technique is called time switching.
 A time division digital switch may also be designed by
using a combination of space and time switching
techniques.
Evolution of telecommunications
Evolution of telecommunications

 The links that run between the switching systems are

called trunks, and those that run to the subscriber
premises are known as subscriber or local lines.

 The first commercial intercity connection was

operationalized between New York and Boston in 1884.

 The first transcontinental trunk connected New York city

to San Francisco in 1915

 The first intercontinental connectivity using short wave

radio became operational in 1927 between New York and
London.
Evolution of telecommunications

 A connection between subscribers attached to switching

systems SS2 and SS3 needs to be routed via SS1 or SS4 in
a hierarchical structure.

 Ever city has a main or central exchange which is used for

routing intercity traffic.

 Exchanges in different localities of the city are connected

to the central exchange either directly or via other
exchanges.

 The central exchange may also be used to route traffic

between two exchanges in the same city. Internationally
standardised switching hierarchy.
Evolution of telecommunications
Communication Links
Evolution of telecommunications
Communication Links
Evolution of telecommunications
Service Specific Networks

 Telegraph networks
 Telex networks
 Telephone networks
 Data networks
Evolution of telecommunications

Telegraph networks
 A telegraph is a communications system in which information is
transmitted over a wire.
 The basic components include a source of direct
current, a length of wire or cable, and a current-indicating
device such as
a relay, buzzer, or light bulb.
 The term comes from the Greek words "tele," meaning "at a
distance" and "graphy," meaning "to write.
Evolution of telecommunications

Telex networks
 The telex network was a
public
switched network of teleprinters similar
to a network, for
telephone
the purposes of sending
text-based
messages. Telex was a major method of
sending written messages electronically
between businesses in the post-World
War II period.
Evolution of telecommunications

Telephone networks
 A telephone network is a
telecommunications network used
for telephone calls between two or
more parties.
 A landline network where the
telephones must be directly wired into
a single telephone exchange.
Evolution of telecommunications

Data networks
 A data network is a system that
transfers data between network access
points (nodes) through data switching,
system control and interconnection
transmission lines.
 Data networks are primarily
designed to transfer data from one
point to one or more points
(multipoint).
Simple telephone communication

 One way communication.

 Also known as Simplex communication .
 Micro phone and Earphones are transducer of the
telecommunication system .
 Micro phone converts speech signal into electrical signal,
earphone converts electrical signal into audio signal .
Simple telephone communication
Simple telephone communication

 In a normal telephone communication system information is

transferred both ways.

 An entity is capable of both receiving and sending although these

do not take place simultaneously.

 Such a form of communication where the information transfer

takes place both wars but not simultaneously is known as half-
duplex communication.

 If the information transfer takes place in both directions

simultaneously, then it is called full-duplex communication.
Major telecommunication networks

 Wide area networks(WAN)

 Metropolitan area
network( MAN)

 Local area networks (LAN)

 Internet area networks (IAN)

 Campus area networks (CAN)

 Virtual private networks(VPN)

Switching Systems
Network connection cannot be simply made with telephone sets
and bunch of wires, but a good system is required to make or
break a connection.

 This system is known as the Switching System or the Switching

Office or the Exchange.

 The switching system, which is also called the Telephone

Exchange
Switching Systems

 A major component of a switching system or an exchange is

the set of input and output circuits called inlets and outlets,
respectively.
 The primary function of a switching system is to establish an
electrical path between a given inlet-outlet pair.
 The hardware used for establishing such a connection is called
the switching matrix or the switching fabric.
Switching Systems

 When N = M the switch is called a symmetric switch.

 The inlets outlets of a switch may be connected to

local subscriber lines or to trunks from/to other
exchanges as shown in Figure
Switching Systems

 The output lines are folded back to the input and hence
the switch is called a folded switch.
 In a switch, all the inlet outlet connections may be used
for inter exchange transmission.
 In such a case, the exchange does not support
local subscribers and is called a transit exchange.
Switching Systems
Switching Systems

1. Local call connection between two subscribers in the

system

2. Outgoing call connection between a subscriber and an

outgoing trunk

3. Incoming call connection between an incoming

trunk and a local subscriber

4. Transit call connection between an incoming trunk and

an outgoing trunk.
Switching Systems

 A folded switch supports Type 1 connections and a non

folded switch supports connections of Type 4.

 In a folded switch with N subscribers, there can be a

maximum of only N2 simultaneous calls or information
interchanges.

 The switch may be designed to provide N/2

simultaneous switching paths, in which case the switch
is said to be Non blocking.
 Blocking Switch
 Switching capacity
 Blocking probability
 Fully connectivity or Fully availability
Switching Systems

 All the switching exchanges are designed to meet an

estimated maximum average simultaneous traffic.
usually known as busy hour traffic.

 The load on a switching resource is measured in

terms of the occupancy of the resource. Such a measure
is called the traffic intensity

 The measure is obviously dimensionless, but is given

a unit known as erlang (E).

 Named after the Danish telephone engineer. A.K. Erlang.

Manual Switching

 A microphone requires to be energised in order to

produce electrical signals corresponding to the speech
waveform.
 In the very early switching systems, the microphone
was energised using a battery at the subscriber end.
Later, a battery located at the exchange was used.
Manual Switching

 With the advent of automatic switching systems, the

manual exchanges have almost gone out of use.
 Today, operator assistance is required on a routine
basis, only to connect the incoming calls at a private
automatic branch exchange (PABX) to the required
extension numbers.
Manual Switching
 Accordingly, one may place the exchanges in one of two
categories:
 Local battery (LB) exchanges
 CentraI battery (CB) exchanges.
 In the LB systems, dry cells were used in subscriber sets
to power the microphone.
 LB subscriber sets were provided with a magneto
generator.
 In this case, a subscriber needed to rotate a handle to
generate the required alternating current to operate
indicators at the exchange.
 The necessity to replace dry cells frequently and the
cumbersome procedure of rotating the magneto
generator led to the development of CB exchanges.
Manual Switching
Manual Switching

 The system consists of one or more switchboards manned

by operators.
 The subscriber lines are terminated on jacks mounted on
the switchboard.
 There is one jack for every subscriber line.
 Associated with each jack is a light indicator to draw the
attention of the operator.
Manual Switching

 When a subscriber lifts the hand set, the off-hook switch is

closed, causing a current to flow through the handset and
the lamp relay coil.
 The lamp relay operates and the indicator corresponding to
the subscriber lights up.
 The operator establishes contact with the subscriber by
connecting the head set to the subscriber line via the head
set key and a plug-ended cord pair.
Manual Switching

 If there are 200 subscribers terminated on a switchboard,

there can be a maximum of loo simultaneous calls.

 In order to support all these calls, the switchboard must

contain 100 plug- ended cord pairs.

 But a single operator may not be able to handle 100 calls

simultaneously.

 it is, however, rare that all the subscribers would like to talk
simultaneously.

 Assuming that only 20 subscribers (10 calls) will use the

system simultaneously, the switchboard needs to be
provided with only 10 plug-ended cord pairs.
Manual Switching
Manual Switching
Manual Switching

 When the number of subscribers increases, multiple

switchboards and operators are required to handle the
traffic.

 In this case, the subscriber switchboards at the exchange

may be of two types:
 Single termination switchboards

 MuIti termination switchboards.

Strowger switching system

 Strowger switching system was the first automatic switching

system developed by Almon B. Strowger in 1889.

 Annoyed at the amount of business he was losing everyday.

 Strowger decided to make a switching system that would

replace the human operator.

 The switch developed by him is named after him.

 Functionally, the system is classified as step-by-step

switching system since the connections are established in a
step-by-step process. .
Strowger switching system
 In a manual the subscriber needs to
exchange.
communicate with the operator and a common
language becomes an important factor.
 In multilingual areas this aspect may pose problems. On the
other hand, the operation of an automatic exchange is
language independent.
 A greater degree of privacy is obtained in automatic
exchanges as no operator is normally involved in setting up
and monitoring a call.
 Establishment and release of calls are faster in automatic
exchanges.
 In an automatic exchange, the time required to
establish andrelease a remains more or less of
the same order call of the load on
irrespective system or the time the
of the day.
Strowger switching system

 A rotary dial uses the following

implementing
telephone pulse dialling: for
 Finger plate
 Shaft, gear and pinion wheel
 Pawl and ratchet mechanism
 Impulsing cam and suppressor cam or a trigger
mechanism
 Impulsing
contact
 Centrifuga
l governor
and worm
gear
 Transmitt
Strowger switching system
Strowger switching system
Strowger switching system
Strowger switching system
Strowger switching system

In dial pulsing mechanism in the

introducing following have to
set, the points telephone be
1. Since pulses produced by considered:
and
the of are loop, theremake
is break
likelihood of
the subscriber the telephone instrument.
sparking inside
2. The transmitter, receiver and the bell circuits of
the set may be damaged if the dialing
telephone
pulses are passed through them.
3. The dialing habits of the users widely and
hence all aspects should
vary be independent of
user action.
timing
Signaling Tones

A number of signaling functions are involved in establishing,

maintaining and releasing a telephone conversation.

 Dial Tone
 Ring Tone
 Busy Tone
 Number Unobtainable Tone
 Routing Tone or Call-in-Progress Tone
Signaling Tones

 Respond to the calling subscriber that system is ready to

receive the identification of the called party.
 Inform the calling subscriber that the call is being established.
 Ring the bell of the called party.
 Inform the calling subscriber, if the called party is busy.
 Inform the calling subscriber, if the called party line is

unobtainable for some reason.

Signaling Tones

 Function 1 above is fulfilled by sending a dial tone to

the
calling subscriber.
 This tone indicates that the exchange is ready to accept dialed
digits from the subscriber.
 The subscriber should start dialing only after hearing the dial
tone,otherwise,initial dial pulses may be missed by
the
exchange.
Signaling Tones

 which result in the call landing on a

may wrong
number.
the dial tone is sent out by the exchange
 Most
even before the handset is brought near the ear.
often,
Signaling Tones

 When the called party line is obtained, the exchange control

equipment sends out the ringing current to the telephone set of
the called party.
 This ringing current has the familiar double-ring pattern,
simultaneously.
 The control equipment sends out a ringing tone to the calling
subscriber.
Signaling Tones
STROWGER SWITCHING COMPONENTS

In Strowger exchanges, two electromechanical devices form the

basic building blocks for the switching system:
 Uni selector
 Two-motion selector
STROWGER SWITCHING COMPONENTS

Uni selector
 These devices are called selectors as they enable selection of
suitable switching paths for establishing connections amongst
subscribers.

 Uniselectors have a mechanism to span across a bank of

contacts that lie in a horizontal plane and to select a free
contact that can be used to establish a connection.

 Two- motion selectors have the ability to move both in the

vertical and horizontal directions to select a free contact.
Uniselectors and two-motion selectors are constructed using
electro-mechanical rotary switches which in turn are built
using among others, an electromagnet, an armature and a
rachet wheel.
STROWGER SWITCHING COMPONENTS
STROWGER SWITCHING COMPONENTS
STROWGER SWITCHING COMPONENTS

The proper functioning of a uniselector is dependent on a

number of factors:
 Energizing current level
 Inertia of the moving system
 Friction between wipers and bank contacts
 Friction in drive assembly
 Tension in restoring springs
 Adjustment of interrupter contact.
STROWGER SWITCHING COMPONENTS
STROWGER SWITCHING COMPONENTS
 The vertical and horizontal motions in a two-motion selector
may be effected directly by using two impulse trains from
subscriber dialing.
 The first impulse train corresponding to the first digit
operates the vertical magnet, and the second impulse train
drives the horizontal rotary switch.
 In such a case, it follows that the bank contacts are so
numbered as to correspond to the digits necessary to reach
each contact.
 It may be noted that the lowest vertical level commences
with 11 and ends with 10, while the tenth level commences
with 01 and ends with 00.
 This is so because digit zero produces 10 pulses when dialed.
Step by Step Switching

 A step-by-step switching system may be constructed using

uniselectors or two-motion selectors or a combination of both.
As already stated, the wiper contacts of these selectors move in
direct response to dial pulses.

 They may also be made to move through interrupter mechanism

which may be activated by other signals like off-hook from the
subscriber telephone.

 The wiper steps forward by one contact at a time and moves by

as many contacts (takes as many steps) as the number of dial
pulses received or as required to satisfy certain signalling
conditions.
Step by Step Switching
Step by Step Switching
Step by Step Switching
Crossbar switching

The Features of Crossbar Switches

 While processing a call, the common control system helps in the
sharing of resources.

 The specific route functions of call processing are hardwired

because of the Wire logic computers.

 The flexible system design helps in the appropriate ratio selection

is allowed for a specific switch.

 Fewer moving parts ease the maintenance of Crossbar switching

systems
Crossbar switching
Non-Blocking Crossbar configuration
Diagonal Cross point Matrix

The diagonal points are also considered, the total number of

Cross points will be
𝑁 (𝑁+1)/2
If the diagonal points are not considered, then the total
number of Cross points will be,
𝑁 (𝑁−1)/2
Crossbar Switch Configurations
Blocking Crossbar Switches

Hence, the steps associated with the establishment of

connection follows a sequence:
 Energize horizontal bar A
 Energize free vertical bar P
 De-energize horizontal bar A
 Energize horizontal bar B
 Energize free vertical bar P’ (associated with P)
 De-energize horizontal bar B
Crossbar Switch Configurations

Hence, the establishment of connection follows a

sequence:
 Energize horizontal bars A and B
 Energize free vertical bar P
 De-energize horizontal bars A and B
Crossbar Switch Configurations

Hence, the establishment of connection follows a

sequence:
 Energize horizontal bars A and B
 Energize free vertical bar P
 De-energize horizontal bars A and B
Electronic Space Division Switching

 Stored Program Control †

 Centralized SPC †
 Distributed SPC †
 Software Architecture †
 Application Software †
 Enhanced Services †
 Two-Stage Networks †
 Three-Stage Networks †
 N-Stage Networks
Electronic Space Division Switching

 Efforts to improve the speed of control and signaling „Late 1940s

and early 1950s.
 Use of vacuum tubes, transistors, gas diodes, magnetic drums and
cathode ray tubes. „
 Arrival of modern electronic digital computers. „

 The registers and translators of common control systems can be

replaced by a single digital computer.
Stored Program Control

Stored Program Control (SPC) „

 Carrying out the exchange control functions through
programs stored in the memory of a computer. „
Consequence
 Full-scale automation of exchange functions
 Introduction of a variety of new services
Stored Program Control

 New features possible for SPC

 Common Channel Signaling (CCS )
 Centralized maintenance
 Automatic fault diagnosis
 Interactive human-machine interface ‡
 Special Requirements of SPC
 Operating without interruption
 Fault tolerant hardware and software
Stored Program Control

 †Two types of SPC switching system

 Electromechanical Switching SPC+Electromechanical

switching network
 Electronic Switching SPC+Electronic switching
network
Stored Program Control
Stored Program Control

 Organization of SPC
 Centralized SPC Broadly used in early SPC
switching systems.
 Distributed SPC Gaining popularity in modern
switching systems.
Centralized SPC

 Concept „
• All the control equipment is replaced by a single
powerful processor. †
 Configuration of centralized SPC
•„Typical organization „
• Redundant configuration
Centralized SPC
Distributed SPC

 Concept of distributed SPC „

• The control functions are by many processors
shared within the exchanges. †
 Background „
• Low cost processors †
 Advantages „
•Better Availability „
•Better Reliability
 Decomposition of Control Functions „
•Vertical decomposition
•Horizontal decomposition
Distributed SPC
 Vertical decomposition
The exchange environment is divided into several blocks
 Each block is assigned to a processor.
 A processor performs all control functions related to the
corresponding block.
 The processor in each block may be
duplicated for
redundancy purposes.
 Obviously, the control system consists of a
number of control units.
 The modular structure is flexible for system expanding.
Distributed SPC
Distributed SPC

 Horizontal decomposition

 The control functions are divided into groups, e.g. event

monitoring, call processing, and O&M functions.
 Each processor performs only one or some of the
exchange control functions.
 A chain of processors are used to perform the entire
control of the exchange.
 The entire chain may be duplicated to provide
redundancy.
Distributed SPC
Enhanced Services

 Categories of enhanced services

 Services associated with the calling subscriber and designed
to reduce the time spent on dialing and the number of
dialing errors.
Services associated with the called subscriber and
designed
to increase the call completion rate.
 Services involving more than two parties.
Miscellaneous services.
Two-Stage Networks

 Theorem „

 For any single stage network, there exists an equivalent

multistage network. †
 Simple Two-stage NxN network „
 A NxN single stage network with a switching capacity of
K connections can be realized by a two-stage network
of NxK and KxN.
Two-Stage Networks

First Stage: Any of the N inlets can be connected to any of the

K outputs. NK switching elements.
Second Stage: Any of the K inputs can be connected to any of
the N outlets. NK switching elements.
There are K alternative paths for any inlet/outlet
pair connection.
Two-Stage Networks

 Full connectivity/full availability „

 Any of the N inlets can be connected to any of the N
outlets. †
 Example „
 Assume 10% of the subscribers to be active on average.
 Set K to be N/16. The number of switching elements is S=N
2/8. „
 For N=1024, we have K=64, S=131072. †Note: Feasibility
& Flexibility
Two-Stage Networks

 Single stage vs. Multistage networks „

 Inlet to outlet connection „
 Quality of link „Utility of cross-points „
 Establishment of a specific connection „
 Cross-point & path
 Redundancy „Number of cross-points „
 Capacitive loading problem „
 Blocking feature „
 Call establishing time
Three-Stage networks

 General structure of an NxN threestage blocking network

 „Stage 1: p x s switching matrices „
 Stage 2: r x r switching matrices „
 Stage 3: s x p switching matrices „
 N=pxr, s is changable „

 Compared with a two-stage network, there are s alternative

paths between a pair of inlet and outlet.
Three-Stage networks
n-stage networks
n-stage networks

 Further reduction in the number of switching elements

are possible by using even higher number of stages
than three. †

 Construction of multi-stage networks „By replacing the

middle blocks with three-stage network blocks
continually, any number of stages can be obtained.
 UNIT-II
TIME DIVISION SWITCHING
 Time Division Switching

 Features of PAM/PCM signal

 Discrete in time domain „
Transmission of PAM/PCM signal Multiplexing
 Periodical time slots
 „For PAM/PCM signals, it is possible for a number of active speech
circuits to share a single switching element, and therefore reduce
the number of switching elements significantly.
Time Multiplexed space switching
Time Multiplexed space switching

 Time division switches where an inlet or an outlet

corresponded to a single subscriber line with one speech
sample appearing every 125 us on the line.
 Such switches are used in local exchanges.
 The inlets and outlets are trunks which carry time
division multiplexed data streams.
Time Division Switching

 They are N incoming trunks and N outgoing trunks, each

carrying a time division multiplexed stream of M samples
per frame.
 Each frame is of 125-jis time duration.
 In one frame time, a total of MV speech samples have to
be switched.
 One sample duration, 125M microseconds, is usually
referred to as a time slot
Time Multiplexed space switching
Time Multiplexed space switching

 Sources and incoming trunks time slots.

 Outgoing trunk time slots and the destinations.
 Time slots of incoming and outgoing trunks.
Time Multiplexed Time Switching

 Time multiplexed time switches permit time

slot interchange (TSI) of sample values.
 In TSI, a speech sample input during one time slot may
be sent to the output during a different time slot.
 Such an operation necessarily implies a delay between the
reception and the transmission of a sample.
Time Multiplexed Time Switching

 The time slot duration tTS is given by

 The time slot clock runs at the time slot rate i.e at the rate of
one pulse ever’ 125M microseconds.
 The time slot counter is incremented by one at the end of
each time slot.
 The contents of the counter provides location addresses for
the data memory and the control memory Data memory and
control memory accesses take place simultaneously in the
beginning of the time slot.
 The contents of the control memory are used as the address
of the data memory and the data read out to the output
trunk
Time Multiplexed Time Switching
Combination switch
 Time slot interchange switches are not capable of switching
sample values across the trunks without the help of some
space switching matrices.

 a combination of the time and space switches leads to

configurations that achieve both time slot interchange and
sample switching across trunks.

 A two-stage combination switch may be organised with time

switch as the first stage and the space switch as the second
stage or vice versa.
 Accordingly the two switch configurations are known by the
nomenclature time-space (TS) or space-time (ST) switches
respectively.
Combination switch
Three stage combination switching

Three-stage time and space combination switches are

more flexible than their two-stage counterparts

The most common three-stage configurations are:

 Those which place time stages on either side of a
space
stage giving rise to TS configuration
 Those which place space stages on either side of a
time stage giving rise to STS configuration
Three stage combination switching
n-stage combination switching
 Very large time division switches, supporting 40,000 lines or
more. Can be economically designed by using more than three
stages of time and space combination switching.
 This N-stage switching where N is greater than three.
 N-stage combination networks may also be designed to provide
better flexibility and less blockage.
 Basically two approaches are seen in designing N-
stage
switches
 Ex
pa
n
di
ng
a
Network traffic load and parameters

 There is a large peak around mid-forenoon and mid-afternoon

signifying busy office activities.
 The afternoon peak is however slightly smaller.
 The load is low during the lunch-hour period. i.e. 12.00—14.00
hours.
 The period 17.00—18.00 hours is characterised by low traffic
signifying that the people are on the move from offices to their
residences.
Network traffic load and parameters
Network traffic load and parameters

 Busy Hour: Continuous 1-hour period laying wholly in the

time interval concerned, for which the traffic volume or the
number of call attempts is greatest.

 Peak Busy Hour: The busy hour each day: it usually varies
from day to day. or over a number of days.

 Time Consistent Busy Hour: The 1-hour period starting at

the same time each day for which the average traffic volume
or the number of call attempts is greatest over the days
under consideration.
Grade of service

 In loss systems. the traffic carried by the network is generally

lower than the actual traffic offered to the network by the
subscribers.
 The overload traffic is rejected and hence is not carried by the
network.
 The amount of traffic rejected by the network is an index of
the quality of the service offered by the network.
 This is termed grade of service (GOS) and is defined as the
ratio of lost traffic to offered traffic Offered traffic is the
product of the average number of calls generated by the users
and the average holding time per call.
Grade of service

 GOS is given by

The smaller the value of grade of service, the better is the service.
The recommended value for GOS ill India is 0.002 which means that
two calls in every 1000 calls or one call in every 500 calls may be lost.
Every common subsystem in a network has an associated GOS value.
Modeling switching systems
Modeling switching systems

 A telecommunication network carries traffic generated by a

large number of individual subscribers connected to the
network.

 The call generation by the subscribers and therefore the

behaviour of the network or the switching systems in it can
be described as a random process.
Modeling switching systems

 Subscribers generate calls in a random manner.

 A random process or a stochastic process is one in which
one or more quantities vary with time in such a way that the
instantaneous values of the quantities are not determinable
precisely but are predictable with certain probability.
Modeling switching systems

Similarly, the time index of the random variables can

be discrete or continuous.

Accordingly. we have four different types of

stochastic processes:

1. Continuous time continuous state

2. Continuous time discrete state

3. Discrete time continuous state

4. Discrete time discrete state.

Incoming traffic and service time characterization

 Whenever a subscriber originates a call, he adds one to the

number of calls arriving at the network and has no way by
which lie can reduce the number of calls that have already
arrived.
 We are thus in need of a model that describes an
originating process.
 Interestingly, this process can be treated as a special case
of the B-D process in which the death rate is equal to zero.
 In other words. there is no death occurring in the process.
 Such a process is known as a renewal process.
Blocking models and loss estimates

 The behaviour of loss systems is studied by using blocking

models and that of the delay systems by using queuing
models.
 it is apparent that we are concerned with three aspects
while dealing with the analysis of the telecommunication
systems:
1. Modelling the system
2. Traffic arrival model
3. Service time distribution
Blocking models and loss estimates

 In loss systems. the overflow traffic is rejected.

 In other words the overflow traffic experiences
blocking from the network.
 There are three ways in which overflow traffic may
be handled
 The traffic rejected by one set of resources
may be cleared by another set of resources in the
network.
 The traffic may return to the same
resource after sometime.
Blocking models and loss estimates

Some part of the initial information from the subscriber may be

lost. But the resources are allocated soon enough so that the
loss is unnoticeable by the subscriber or within acceptable
limits.
Corresponding to the above three cases, we consider three
models of loss systems:
1. Lost calls cleared (LCC)
2. Lost calls returned (LCR)
3. Lost calls held (LCH)
Delay systems

 A class of telecommunication networks. such as data

networks, places the call or message arrivals in a queue in
the absence of resources, and services them as and when
resources become available.
 Servicing is not taken tip until the resource becomes
available.
 Such systems are known as delay systems which are also
called lost call delayed (LCD) systems.
Delay systems

 Delay systems are analysed using queuing theory which is

sometimes known as waiting line theory.

 Although the foundations of queuing theory were laid by

early tele traffic researchers, the theory is nowadays used
for the analysis of a wide variety of applications outside
telecommunications.
Delay systems

 Examples of delay systems in telecommunications include

the following:
. Message switching
. Packet switching
. Digit receiver access
. Automatic call distribution
. Call processing
Delay systems
 UNIT-III
DATA NETWORKS
DATA NETWORKS

Data networks are classified according to their geographical

coverage:
 Wide area networks (WANs)
 Metropolitan area networks (LANs
 Local area networks (LANs)
DATA NETWORKS
DATA NETWORKS

 LANs. MANs and WNs are generally interconnected in a

hierarchical manner to form a global network
 LANs are often connected directly to WANs particularly in
places where MANs are not installed or have not
developed well.
 Apart from the different geographical coverage's, the
range of data rates supported on these networks also
differs widely.
DATA TRANSMISSION IN PSTNS
 Public switched telephone networks and electronic PABXs
are designed to carry analog voice signals.
 LANs can be designed around PABXs, and MANs around
PSTNs.
 In these cases, the data rates are usually limited
to a
maximum of 64 kbps.
 Terrestrial data networks and the integrated
services digital networks however, support data rates of
1.544 or
2.048 Mbps.
DATA TRANSMISSION IN PSTNS

Geographical coverage and speeds of data

networks
DATA TRANSMISSION IN PSTNS
 Transmission of digital data signals over PSTN networks
demands that the digital signals be converted to analog
form at the transmitting end and vice versa at the receiving
end.
 A modulator translates the data pulses into voice band
analog signals at the transmitting end.
 At the receiving end, the analog signals are demodulated
to recover the digital Information.
 A combined modulator demodulator unit is called a
modem.
DATA TRANSMISSION IN PSTNS

Data communication using PSTN

Data Rates in
PSTNs
 A voice channel in a PSTN is band limited with a nominal
bandwidth of 3.1 kHz.
 A first-cut estimate of this can be obtained from Nyquist
theorem which applies to noiseless channels and
states
R = 2H log2 V bps
where
R = maximum data rate
H = bandwidth of the channel
V = number of discrete levels in the signal
Data Rates in
PSTNs
 .

Data Rates in
PSTNs

Baud rates and bit rates

Modems

 Amplitude, frequency and phase modulation are all used in

the design of modems.
 In amplitude modulation, zeros and ones are represented by
two different voltage levels.
 A signal waveform s(t), called baseband signal, is generated
from the digital data.
 This is then multiplied by a sinusoidal carrier, say
cos (2tfot), to generate a modulated signal
Modems
Modems
 While the message sample rate is the baud rate, the bit rate is
four times the baud rate in this example.
 This technique of varying the amplitude of sinusoidal carrier
using the voltage levels of the baseband signal is known as
amplitude shift keying (ASK) .
 If the carrier is sinusoidal and the baseband voltage level is used
to vary the frequency or phase of the carrier, the modulation is
known as frequency shift keying (FSK) or phase shift keying (PSK)
respectively.
Switching techniques for data transmission
 They are basically designed to carry voice traffic and there are
some significant differences in the nature of voice and data
traffic.
 Voice traffic is generally continuous (except for the silence
periods in normal speech), whereas data traffic is bursty in
nature.
 In contrast, voice traffic needs low bandwidth (3.4 kHz) for long
durations.
Switching techniques for data transmission
Switching techniques for data transmission

 The recognition of the diverse characteristics of voice and data

traffic has led to the development of a switching technique
other than the one used for voice transmission.
 This technique is better suited for transmitting data traffic.
 Hence, two switching techniques are prevalent for data
transmission:
 Circuit switching
 Store and forward (S&F) switching.
Circuit switching
 In circuit switching, an electrical path is established
between the source and the destination before any
data transfer takes place.
 The electrical path may be realised by physical wires or
coaxial cables or radio or satellite links.
 It remains dedicated to the communicating pair for the
entire duration of the transmission irrespective of either
data is actually transferred or not.
 The connection is released only when specifically
signalled so by either of the communicating entities
Circuit switching

Circuit switching Network

Circuit switching
Circuit switching

 Circuit switching has certain disadvantages for transmitting

data traffic.
 The path set up time which is typically of the order of 20—3 0 s
or more turns out to be an excessive overhead for busty
computer traffic which typically lasts for a few seconds or less.
 The entire line quality is affected if there is one bad link in
the circuit In fact, this is a typical problem faced in many PSTN
circuit switched connections.
Store and forward switching

 A store and forward (S&F) network configuration is In S&F

switching.
 The switching nodes have the ability to store user messages
and forward the same towards the destination as and when
the links become available.
 For this purpose, each node is equipped with a processor
and some buffer storage.
 No end-to-end link is set up prior to data transmission.
Store and forward switching
Store and forward switching
 The network moves the user information from node to
node.
 One such movement is called a hop.
 Since the communication links are used one at a time
between any two nodes, line speeds can be
utilized efficiently.
 S&F switching may be classified as:
• Message switching
• Packet switching
Store and forward switching

 Receive the full user message and store the same.

 Check the message for data transmission errors and perform
error recover if required.
 Determine the destination address from the user message.
 Choose an appropriate link towards destination based
on certain routing criterion.
 Forward the message to the next node on the chosen link.
Data communication architecture

 Data communication among computers involves a number

of functions such as physical transmission of bits, error
control, and routing and session establishment.
 In order to efficiently implement these functions, vendors
of computer systems evolved their own architectures.
 Examples of vendor specific architectures are System
Network Architecture (SNA) of IBM and Digital Network
Architecture (DNA) of Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC).
Data communication architecture

An architecture which is used as a standard by all the vendors

is required.
The heterogeneity covers the following aspects:

1. Systems of different vendors

2. Systems under different managements
3. Systems of different complexities
4. Systems of different technologies.
Data communication architecture

 ARPANET: The network project supported by Advanced

Research Projects Agency of the Department of Defence,
United States, was one of the pioneering efforts in
interconnection heterogeneous systems.
 The efforts put in and the experience gained in the project
significantly contributed the emergence of a world standard
architecture for computer communication, largely pursued
and set out by International Standardisation Organisation
(ISO).
ISO-OSI reference model

System:
A system is one or more autonomous computers and their
associated software, peripherals and users, which are capable
of information processing and or transfer .
Subsystem:
A logically independent smaller unit of a system A succession
of subsystem make up a system.
ISO-OSI reference model
Layer:
 A layer is composed of subsystems of the same rank of all
the interconnected systems.
 The subsystems and the layers are numbered starting with
one at the bottom level.

Entity:
 The functions in a laver are by
performed and or software packages.
subsystems hardware
 These are known as entities.
 ISO-OSI architecture is a layered one.
 Layering is a natural for communication
architectures
choice
ISO-OSI reference model
ISO-OSI reference model
ISO-OSI reference model
 A three-layer structure is used in this communication
process.
 The conversation between an upper and lower laver is
strictly business like.
 There is generally a little private conversation between the
trunk operators and the two secretaries on account of their
familiarity.
 A layer obtains services from its immediate lower layer and
provides services to its immediate upper layer.
 There are fairly well defined functions to be performed by
each layer.
 It is immaterial as to how the functions of each laver are
implemented.
ISO-OSI reference model
ISO-OSI reference model

The important principles are:

 Create layers to handle Functions which are
manifestly
different in the process performed or technology involved.
 Collect similar functions into the same layer and create a
boundary at a point where the number of interactions across
the boundary are minimised.
 Create a layer of easily localised functions so that the layer
could be totally redesigned and its protocols changed in a
major way to take advantage of new advances in
architectures.
Link to link layers

 The first three layers, viz. physical, data link and network
layers, form the link-to-link layers of OSI reference model.
 They obtain services from the immediate lower layer
and provide services to the immediate upper laver.
 OSI services may be placed under two broad categories:

 Connection oriented services

 Connectionless services.
Link to link layers
Connection oriented services
 A connection is first established between the sender and
the receiver before data transfer can commence.
 The connection may be virtual (logical) or
physical, depending upon the network capabilities and
facilities.
 The essence of a connection oriented service is that a
connection acts like a tube or a pipe delivering.
 The data to the receiver strictly in the same order
in which the data was put into the
connection by the
Link to link layers

Connectionless service
 It is modelled after the postal system.
 Each submission by the sender is treat independently of
others and is sell-contained with the full address of the
destination and the source indication which may be the
full address too.
 it is possible that the fast one is delayed and the second
one arrives first. Datagram service and the virtual circuit
service
Link to link layers
Physical layer

 It is essential that the OSI architecture permits the usage

of a realistic variety of physical media and control
procedures.
 Keeping this in mind, the lowest layer of the architecture
has been identified as the physical laver
 This laver performs functions associated with the
activation and deactivation of physical connections.
Data link layer

 Special techniques are required to ensure error free

transmission of data.
 The data link laver deals with error detection and
automatic recover procedures required when a message
is lost or corrupted.
 For this purpose, a user of this layer, ie. the network
layer, is required to break up the data to be transmitted
into frames which are then numbered and transmitted
sequentially.
Data link layer

There are three error control mechanisms that are commonly

used:

1. Echo checking
2.Forward error correction (FEC)
3. Automatic repeat request (ARQ).
Network Layer

 The highest link-to-link layer in the OSI model is the

network layer.
 Although this layer functions on a link-to-link basis, it is
concerned with transmission of packets from the source
node to the destination node.
 The network laver makes invisible to the transport laver,
the details of the underlying communication media and
the different characteristics of the transmission and
network technologies.
Network Layer
Network Layer
A number of measures may be used in assessing the
performance of a routing algorithm:

1. Minimum delay
2. Minimum number of intermediate nodes or hops
3. Processing complexity
4 Signalling capacity required on the network
5. The rate of adaption in the case of adaptive
algorithms
6. Fairness to all types of traffic
7.Robustness: the ability to reach the destination even when
parts of the network fail
END-TO-END LAYERS

 Many data networks were operational before the OSI model

was designed.
 These networks were well thought out up to the network
laver, but little had been done about the transport layer and
above.
 As a consequence, the design of the bottom three layers of
OSI vas highly the flounced by pre-OSI developments.
Transport Layer

 Transport layer is the first end-to-end layer in the OSI

architecture.
 It is responsible for matching user message characteristics
and service requirements with that of the network
capabilities.
 In a packet switched network, the transport entity breaks up
a long user message into packets to match the network
capabilities.
 The packets are reassembled at the destination transport
subsystem to reconstruct the user message.
Transport Layer

Some QOS parameters that are of direct interest to the users

are:

1. Transit delay
2. Residual error rate
3. Protection
4. Transfer failure probability
5. Priority
6. Throughput.
Session Layer

 The main function of the session layer is to organise different

sessions between cooperating entities and perform all related
functions like synchronisation, failure management, control,
etc. for the successful execution of a session.
 Online search of databases, remote job entry, remote login to
a time sharing system and file transfer between two systems
are all examples of sessions.
 The session layer may also offer a director s service.
Session Layer
Presentation layer

 The purpose of the presentation laver is to represent

information to the communicating application entities in a
way that preserves the meaning.

 Syntax differences are resolved by encoding application

data into a standard abstract notation that is valid
throughout the network.
Presentation layer
SATELLITE BASED DATA NETWORKS

 Satellite network topology and confutations modulation

schemes and bandwidth utilisation; these are aspects related
to the physical layer functions of the reference model.
 Being a common communication resource accessible by all or
a group of earth stations simultaneously. media access
becomes a nontrivial function in the data link layer.
 Satellite communication being broadcast in nature, routing
becomes a trivia function;
SATELLITE BASED DATA NETWORKS

 In the simplest form of ALOHA, often called ‘pure ALOHA

to distinguish from other forms of ALOHA protocols
 A station or terminal starts transmission as soon as it is ready. In
this case, anyone of the following three things may happen
 There may be an on-going transmission already in the
channel and thenew transmission may collide
with the existing one,
thereby affecting both transmissions.
SATELLITE BASED DATA NETWORKS
LAN

A local area network (LAN) typifies a

distributed environment and finds applications in a
number of areas.

Some examples are:

1. Office automation
2. Factory automation
3. Distributed computing
4. Fire and security systems
5. Process control
6. Document distribution.
LAN
The advantages offered by the LANs are:

 Unlike a large centralised system, a LAN may evolve with

time. It may be put into operation with a small investment, and
more systems may be added as the need arises.

 Since LAN is a set of multiple interconnected systems, it offers a

good back up capability in the event of one or two systems
failing in the network. This, in turn, enhances the reliability and
availability of the systems to users.
LAN
The advantages offered by the LANs are:

 LAN provides a resource-sharing environment. Expensive

peripherals, hosts and databases may be shared by all the LAN
users.

 A LAN adhering to a certain standard permits multivendor

systems to be connected to it. Thus, a user is not committed to a
single vendor.

 In LAN, the systems are generally so chosen as to meet most of

the user
LAN
LAN

As a result, only three combinations of access techniques

and topologies are popularly used:

1. Multiple access bus

2. Token passing ring or token ring

3. Token passing bus or token bus.

Metropolitan area network

 A metropolitan area network (MAN) covers

usually geographical area spanning a distance of 5 a
—50 km.
require
 In functionality MANs support services
that
guaranteed bandwidth and bounded delay performance

 In addition to data services that do not pose such restrictions.

 Additional services may include voice and video: depending on

the available bandwidth.
Metropolitan area network

 MANs may operate at speeds of 1 Mbps and above although a

more common range is 50—150 kbps.

 Network structures to MAN are similar to the ones used in

LANs: star, bus and ring. In this sense.

 The LANs may be considered as an extension of LANs

Fiber optic networks

Optical fibre networks are characterised by

 High speed operation (typically loo Mbps or more)

 Ability to span large distances (100—200 km)

 Ability to support a moderate number of stations; typically 10

to a few hundred stations are supported with a maximum limit
around 1000.
Fiber optic networks

 These characteristics make the fibre optic networks suitable

for high speed LASs and MANs with a limited number of
stations.
 Fibre networks may be configured around a star. ring or bus
structure.
 The number of stations that can be supported in a star or a
bus structure is relatively low compared to that in a ring
configuration.
 Optical fibres are inherently unidirectional and this influences
the way in which the network structures are realised.
Fiber optic networks

 The passive hub is usually a silica cylinder. The incoming fibres

are fused to one end of the cylinder and the outgoing fibres to
the other end.

 The light emitted by the transmitters (LEDs) of the stations

diffuses inside the passive hub illuminating all the receivers
(,photodiodes).

 The incoming energy is divided among all the outgoing lines.

Data network standards

 Three major international bodies have been signficantly

contributing to the data network The bodies, their major area
of concentration, and the standard series identifiers are.
Data network standards

 Standards laid down by ISO and CCITT have international legal

standing, whereas IEEE standards have to be adopted by ISO
to attain this legal standing.

 Standards work at IEEE is sponsored by ANSI which is affiliated

to ISO.

 Standards evolved by CCITT are adopted by ISO under its

own series number and vice versa.
 UNIT-IV
TELEPHONE NETWORKS
TELEPHONE NETWORKS

Any telecommunication network may be viewed as consisting of the

following major
systems:
1. Subscriber end instruments or equipments
2. Subscriber loop systems
3. Switching systems
4. Transmission s:cstems
5. Signalling systems
TELEPHONE NETWORKS
A telephone network is a telecommunications network used
for telephone calls between two or more parties.
 There are a number of different types of telephone network:
A landline network where the telephones must be directly wired
into a single telephone exchange. This is known as the public
switched telephone network or PSTN.
A wireless network where the telephones are mobile and can
move around anywhere within the coverage area.
A private network where a closed group of telephones are
connected primarily to each other and use a gateway to reach
the outside world. This is usually used inside and call centers and
is called a private branch exchange (PBX).
Subscriber Loop Systems

In a general telephone network, every subscriber has two dedicated

lines connecting to the nearest switching exchange.
 which are called the Loop lines of that subscriber.
 The laying of lines to the subscriber premises from the exchange
office is called Cabling
Subscriber loop systems
Subscriber loop systems

 It is unwieldy to run physically independent pairs from every

subscriber premises to the exchange.

 It is fast easier to lay cables containing a number of pairs of wires

for different geographical location and run individual pairs as
required by the subscriber premises.

 At the subscriber end, the drop wires are taken to a distribution

point. The drop wires are the individual pairs that run into the
subscriber premises on the MDF.
Subscriber loop systems
Switching Hierarchy and Routing

 The next important system in this is the switching hierarchy and

routing of the telephone lines.

 The interconnectivity of calls between different areas having

different exchanges is done with the help of trunk lines between
the exchanges.

 The group of trunk lines that are used to interconnect different

exchanges are called the Trunk Groups
Switching Hierarchy and Routing

In the process of interconnecting exchanges, there are three

basic topologies, such as

 Mesh Topology

 Star Topology

 Hierarchical
Switching Hierarchy and Routing

Mesh Topology
Switching Hierarchy and Routing

Star Topology
Switching Hierarchy and Routing

Hierarchical
Transmission Plan
The apportionment of links between national and international circuits
is necessary to ensure “quality” telecommunications.
High quality standards, the following guidelines were put forward
by the CCITT
 The maximum number of circuits to be used in an
international call is 12.
 No more than four international circuits be used in tandem
between the originating and the terminating international
switching centers.
 In exceptional cases and for a low number of calls, the total
number of circuits may be 14, but even in this case, the
international circuits are limited to a maximum of four.
Transmission Plan

 The maximum of circuits to be used in an

number international
call is 12.
 No more than four international circuits be used in
tandem between the originating and the terminating
international switching centres.

 In exceptional cases and for a low number of calls, the

total number of circuits may b 14, but even in this case,
the international circuits are limited to a maximum of four.
Transmission Plan
Transmission Plan
Transmission Systems

There are different types of transmission systems

 Radio systems

 Coaxial cable system

 Optical fiber system

Transmission Systems

 Fibre optic transmission systems have been discussed in

detail
 we concentrate on radio and coaxial cable systems.
 Radio communication deals with electronic radiation of
electromagnetic energy from one point to
another through the atmosphere or free space.
 It is possible only in a certain portion of
the electromagnetic frequency spectrum.
Transmission Systems

 This portion includes frequencies from 9 kHz to 4000Hz.

 While there are international allocations for the radio
spectrum up to 275 0Hz, most of the commercial uses
take place between 100 kHz and 20 0Hz.
 Different layers of the atmosphere play a role in
propagating radio waves.
Transmission Systems

Depending upon the mechanism of signal propagation, the Radio

communication has four varieties of communication, such as:
 Skywave or Ionospheric Communication

 Line-of-sight (LOS) microwave communication limited by

horizon

 Tropospheric Scatter Communication

 Satellite Communication
Transmission Systems
Numbering Plan

 Main Exchange: A large central exchange which serves the main

business center of a town

 Satellite Exchanges: The smaller exchanges serving different

localities .

 Multi-exchange area: The area containing the complete network of

the main exchange and the satellites.
Numbering Plan

Types of Numbering Plans:

 Open Numbering Plan

 Semi-Open Numbering Plan

 Closed Numbering Plan

221
Numbering Plan

222
Numbering Plan
 Each zone is given a single digit code For the European zone,
two codes have been allotted because of the large number
of countries within this zone.
 Ever international telephone number consists of two parts as
shown in Figure .
 The country code contains one, two or three digits, the first
digit being the zone code in which the country lies.
 For example, in zone 3, France has the country code ‘33’
Albania ‘355’.
 In zone 9, India has the country code ‘91’ and Maldives 96O’.
 All the countries in the North American zone have the code
as ‘1’

223
Numbering Plan

 All the countries in the North American zone have the code
as ‘1’ .
 All the countries in the USSR have the code as ‘T. The
standard country codes are listed in CCITT Rec. E.163.

224
Numbering Plan

 The Area Code or the Trunk Code

 Exchange Code
 Subscriber Line Number

225
Numbering Plan

226
Numbering Plan
 In the closed numbering scheme of North America, an area
code consists of three digits, an exchange code three digits,
and a subscriber line number four digits.
 Thus, a fixed 10-digit number forms the national number.
 In India where a semi open
numbering scheme is used, a national number has 7—9
digits.
 But the apportionment between the STD code and
the subscriber number varies widely.
 STD codes have 2—6 digits and the subscriber numbers 3
—7 digits.
 The exchange codes are 1—3 digits long and the subscriber
line numbers 2—4 digits.
 A numbering area in a region always has the region code as
the first digit of the STD code.
227
Numbering Plan

For example, in region 2

 The city of Ahmedabad has the STDcode as ‘272’

 Nearby suburban town Bhopal has the code ‘2707’, and
in regions, The city of Bangalore has the code ‘812’
 The hill town Tirumala the code 15747’.

228
Numbering Plan
There are four possible approaches to dialing procedures:

 Use a single uniform procedure for all calls. viz, local, national and
international calls.

 Use two different procedures, one for international calls and the
other for local and national calls.

 Use three different procedures, one for international

calls, second for national trunk calls, and the third for local calls.

 Use four different procedures, three procedures same as given in

3 above and a fourth procedure for calls in the
adjacent numbering areas.

229
Charging Plan

A charging plan for a telecommunication service levies three

different charges on a subscriber:

1. An initial charge for providing a network connection

2. A rental or leasing charge
3. Charges for individual calls made

230
Charging Plan

The individual calls can be charged based on the

following categories.

 Duration independent charging

 Duration dependent charging

231
Charging Plan

 In the olden days when STD and ISD facilities were not
available, the trunk calls were established with the help of
operators who were also responsible for the call charging .
 The subscriber meters are then useful only for local calls.
 To avoid the capital cost of providing meters and the
operating costs of reading them at regular intervals and
preparing the bills.
 some administrations have adopted a flat rate tariff system
where some fixed charges for all estimated average
number of local calls are included in the rental.
 This scheme is advantageous to subscribers who make a
large number of calls but unfair to sparing users.

232
Signaling Techniques

There are three forms of involved in a

signaling telecommunication network.
 Subscriber loop signaling
 Intra exchange or register signaling
 Interexchange or inter-register signaling

233
Signaling Techniques

There are three forms of signaling involved in a

telecommunication network.

 Subscriber loop signaling

 Intra exchange or register signaling
 Interexchange or inter-register signaling

Line signaling: The network-wide signaling that involves

end-to-end signaling between the originating exchange and
the terminating exchange

234
Signaling Techniques

The two main types of signaling techniques are:

 In-Channel Signaling
 Common Channel Signaling

235
Signaling Techniques

In-Channel Signaling:

 It is also known as Per Trunk Signaling.

 This uses the same channel, which carries user voice or data to
pass control signals related to that call or connection.
 No additional transmission facilities are needed, for In-channel
signaling .

236
Signaling Techniques

Common Channel Signaling:

 It is also known as Per Trunk Signaling.

 This uses the same channel, which carries user voice or data to
pass control signals related to that call or connection.
 No additional transmission facilities are needed, for In-channel
signaling .
common channel signaling is implemented in two modes:
 Channel associated mode
 Channel non-associated mode

237
Signaling Techniques

Common Channel Signaling:

The signaling paths for the speech paths A-B, A-C-B and B-D are A-B,
A-C-B and B-D respectively. The advantages of this signaling are:
 The implementation is economic
 The assignment of trunk groups is simple
238
Signaling Techniques

Channel Non-associated Mode

The signaling paths for the speech paths A-B and B-C are A-C-D-B
and B-D-C respectively. The network topologies are different for
signaling and speech networks

239
Signaling Techniques

In channel vs common channel

240
Signaling Techniques

Channel Non-associated Mode

The signaling paths for the speech paths A-B and B-C are A-C-D-B
and B-D-C respectively. The network topologies are different
for signaling and speech networks

241
Signaling Techniques

Channel Non-associated Mode

The signaling paths for the speech paths A-B and B-C are A-C-D-B
and B-D-C respectively. The network topologies are different
for signaling and speech networks

242
 UNIT-V
INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL
NETWO
RKS
integrated services digital networks:

Thetransmission of data and voice both were possible through

normal POTS, Plain Old Telephone Systems.

The process of connecting a home computer to the

Internet Service Provider used to take a lot of effort.

The usage of the modulator-demodulator unit, simply

called the MODEM was the essential thing to establish a
connection.
integrated services digital networks:
ISDN

 The introduction of ISDN has resolved this problem allowing the

transmission of both voice and data simultaneously.

 This has many advanced features over the traditional PSTN,

Public
Switched Telephone Network .

 ISDN was first defined in the CCITT red book in 1988.The Integrated
Services of Digital.

 Networking, in short ISDN is a telephone network based

infrastructure that allows the transmission of voice and data
simultaneously at a high speed with greater efficiency.
ISDN
ISDN supports a variety of services. A few of them are
listed below:
 Voice calls
 Facsimile
 Videotext
 Tele text
 Electronic Mail
 Database access
 Data transmission and voice
 Connection to internet
 Electronic Fund transfer
 Image and graphics exchange
 Document storage and transfer
 Audio and Video Conferencing
 Automatic alarm services to fire stations, police, medical etc
Types of ISDN
 Among the types of several interfaces present, some of them
contains channels such as the B-Channels or Bearer Channels
that are used to transmit voice and data simultaneously; the D
Channels or Delta Channels that are used for signalling purpose
to set up communication.
 The ISDN has several kinds of access interfaces such as:
 Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
 Primary Rate Interface (PRI)
 Narrowband ISDN
 Broadband ISDN
 Broadband Communications. The broadband services provide a
continuous flow of information, which is distributed from a
central source to an unlimited number of authorized receivers
connected to the network.
Advantages of ISDN

 ISDN is a telephone network based infrastructure, which enables

the transmission of both voice and data simultaneously.

There are many advantages of ISDN such as:

As the services are digital, there is less chance for errors.

The connection is faster.

The bandwidth is higher.

 Voice, data and video – all of these can be sent over a single ISDN
line.
Disadvantages of ISDN

 The disadvantage of ISDN is that it requires specialized digital

services and is costlier.
 However, the advent of ISDN has brought great advancement in
communications. Multiple.
 transmissions with greater speed are being achieved with
higher
levels of accuracy .

Motivation for ISD

 Three factors are responsible for the developments towards
ISDN:
1. Sociological or societal needs
2. Economic necessities
3. Technological developments.
ISDN SERVICES

ISDN supports a variety of services. A short list of some of the

important services is:
1 Videotex
2. Electronic mail
3. Digital facsimile
4. Teletex
5. Database access.
These services are described in the following sections.
Videotex
Video tex is a generic term for systems that provide easy to
use. Low cost computer based Services via communication
facilities. Three forms of video texexist:
6. View
7. Tele text
8. Open channel teletext.
Electronic Mail
NETWORK AND PROTOCOL ARCH ITECTURE

 Network architecture of [SDN followed an evolutionary path.

It is natural that an evolutionary approach was taken with regard
to ISDN.
 The wide range of telecommunication equipments and networks
that were existing could not replaced overnight by ISDN.
 As a first step, the then existing analog telephone networks were
converted to digital networks.
 These networks were then be operated along with other existing
data and signalling networks.
 It is seen from the figure that four different types of networks
form part of the segregated architecture.
An ISDN exchange and a suitable user-network interface permit
an integrated access to the network facilities.
ISDN Architecture
ISDN Protocol architecture
ISDN Services
ISDN STANDARDS
BROADBAND ISDN

 Broadband ISDN (BISDN) is defined as a network capable of

supporting data rates greater than the primary rate (1S44 or
2.048 Mbps) supported by ISDN. In the context of BISDN,
 The original ISDN concept is often termed narrowband ISDN
 (NISDN). BISDN services are broadly classified as
. Interactive services
. Distribution services.
Interactive services may be classified as
1. Conversational sen-ices
2. Messaging services
3. Retrieval services.
Distribution services are classified as
4. Broadcast services
5. Cyclic services.
VOICE DATA INTEGRATION