TRAINING PROGRAMME ON PREPARATION OF DETAILED PROJECT

REPORT FOR HIGHWAY PROJECTS FOR THE PERSONNEL OF

CONSULTANTS

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR

BRIDGE DESIGN
FOUNDATIONS & SUBSTRUCTURE

BY
ADITYA SHARMA
 SESSION & TOPIC OF PRESENTATION

ADITYA SHARMA, BRIDGE INDEPENDENT CONSULTANT

Mr. Sharma is having wide range of experience spanning over 32 years in

planning, detailed engineering design, proof checking, project management and
procurement for various bridges / highway & infrastructure projects. He is well
versed with National & International codes of Bridge Design & Conversant with
the IRC, BS, ASSHTO LRFD, EURO and MOST standards & specifications.
Add
He worked in Ramboll as Director for 15 years and also has more than 16 years
Photogra of hands-on experience with RITES associating both for domestic & international
ph projects. He has worked in Nepal, Botswana, England & Ireland in a capacity of
Bridge Engineer while working with RITES and Ramboll.

He is Member of Technical Committees of Indian Road Congress (B-2 , B-4 & B-

6) and published papers for Fib, IRC, IIBE etc. He is Member of many
professional societies like Indian Road Congress (IRC), International Association
of Bridge and Structural Engineers (IABSE) & Indian Concrete Institute (ICI) .
 CONTENT
1. PLANNING OF BRIDGE

2. SITE INSPECTION

3. ESSENTIAL HYDRAULIC DATA FOR FOUNDATION DESIGN

4. PROTECTION WORK

5. RIVER TRAINING WORKS

6. GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION

7. ESTIMATION OF LIQUEFACTION

8. OPEN FOUNDATION

9. DEEP FOUNDATION –GROUP PILES & MONOPILE

10. DEEP FOUNDATION -WELL

11. SUBSTRUCTURE TYPE & DESIGN

12. ESTIMATION OF VERTICAL & HORIZONTAL CAPACITIES OF PILE

BRIDGE COMPONENTS
PLANNING OF BRIDGE
• Planning of Bridge is to create facility to comply with various technical, administrative,
environmental, financial & social requirements

• All requisite information & data needs to be collected for proper planning of bridge project

• Following Planning strategies are required

• Integration with Road Network

• Interaction with public & authorities
• Siting of the bridge
• Safety
• Environmental Examination
• Aesthetics
• Economic Evaluation
PLANNING OF BRIDGE – FOR RIVER
• Bridge should be sited at narrowest width of river channel – Applicable for large bridges
across Ganga & Brahamputra

• Straight Channel width up to considerable length both upstream & downstream

• Stable Bank having no history of erosion

• Bridge should not sited at meandering stretch of the river unless there is established banks
between meandering stretch of the river

• On one side of river, if there is no defined bank, proper river training or Guide Bund to be
provided

• Study of Topographical sheets of Survey of India or Satellite Imagery is essential to plan

bridges for large rivers. This can obtained from Remote Sensing Agency

• A physical & Mathematical model studies should be performed in case river have undefined
Cross section & huge flood plains.
PLANNING OF BRIDGE - FOR RIVERS
The basic Principal of bridge siting after giving consideration to river training works, alignment
& economics Bridge shall be as follows :-

• Bridges up to a length of 60 meters – Preference to Suitability of alignment of road, unless

there are special problems at the crossing with regard to design and maintenance of the
bridge.

• For bridges having a length between 60 m and 300 m – Preference to Suitability of site of
the bridge as well as that of the alignment of approaches shall be considered together.

• For bridges having a length more than 300 m – Preference to site for the bridge shall have
the precedence and the alignment of approaches will have to conform to the selected
bridge site

• 50 m of approaches on either side of the bridge/grade separator or the defined length up to

the end of approach gradient, whichever is larger, shall form part of bridge/grade separator
planning.

Bridge Siting study should be carried out based on the above consideration and documented ie
rating each sites and their acceptance or rejection
PLANNING OF BRIDGE - GRADE SEPARATORS &
COASTAL BRIDGE
The basic Principal of siting Grade Separators & bridges in Hilly & Coastal regions shall be as
follows :-

• The layout of a grade separator or an Underpass is determined by the alignment and

geometry of intersecting roads, road classification and degree of segregation required.

• For bridges in high altitude, road is passing through snow bound areas and avalanche
prone slopes, snow removal and avalanche control should be one of the factors to be
considered in the planning stage of the road and bridges. Relevant BIS code to referred.

• The coastal bridges are susceptible to highly corrosive environment, storm surge or
tsunami and strong cyclonic winds. These aspects should be considered in design of such
bridges. Reference to recently issued Guidelines Wave Effects on Bridge by IRC ie IRC:-
SP-134-2012 shall be made.
PLANNING OF BRIDGE - COLLECTION OF DATA
Following information shall be furnished for the Design of Bridge Project.
• General Data including Maps, Plans and Topographical Features
• Hydraulic Data for Selected Bridge Site
• Seismological Data for Selected Bridge Site
• Geotechnical Sub-surface Data
• Environmental Data
• Loading and other Data
• Traffic Data if stand-alone bridge project
• Construction Materials
• Special Design Requirements
• Existing Services to pass on bridge
• Interaction with other Authorities
• Data Regarding Existing Bridges in the vicinity
PLANNING OF BRIDGE - GEOMETRIC DESIGN
Horizontal and vertical alignments of road bridges shall conform to relevant IRC
Code., following aspects shall be considered:

• To the extent practicable, the alignment of roadways shall be selected to make bridge
crossing as nearly square as possible.

• Wherever the bridge is in curvature, effort shall be made to provide constant curvature
within the bridge portion of the highway

• Skew Angle in any Bridge should Preferably not Exceed 30 degree

• Gap between two bridges if new bridge to be constructed in parallel to existing bridge

• Special Studies to be performed based on Hydraulic consideration

• Locating bridges on vertical sag curves shall be avoided as far as possible

• For bridges, a minimum longitudinal gradient of 0.3% is desirable to provide for deck
drainage

• For hilly terrain ruling gradient to be attained in minimum length

• A single vertical curve shall be provided for bridges having total length of 30m
SITE SELECTION –GENERAL GUIDELINES
Selection of site for culverts and small bridges is guided by road alignment. However,
where there is choice, select a site:

• Which is situated on a straight reach of stream, sufficiently down stream of bends;

• Which is sufficiently away from the confluence of large tributaries beyond their disturbing
influence;
• Which has well defined banks;
• Which make approach roads feasible on the straight; and offers a square crossing

• Due consideration should be given if there is an existing road or railway bridge or culvert over the same
stream within 500 m from the selected site,

• Ascertaining the maximum discharge from data collected by inspection of the existing structure.

• Intelligent inspection and local inquiry to find marks indicating the maximum flood level, afflux,
tendency to scour, the probable maximum discharge, the likelihood of collection of brushwood during
floods,.

• Disaster Management Data for HFL

• To find whether the existing structure is too large or too small or whether it has other defects due to
hydraulic deficiency.
SPECIAL STUDIES FOR SCOUR UNDER ABNORMAL
CONDITIONS – PROVISION OF IRC-78
GENERAL ASPECTS - DEFINITIONS
Bridge:
• A bridge is a structure having a total length above 6 m for carrying traffic or other moving
loads across a channel, depression, road or railway track or any other obstruction.

Minor /Major Bridge:

• A minor bridge is a bridge having a total length of upto 60 m. Any bridge having more than
60m length is classified as Major Bridge

Culvert:
• Culvert is a structure having a total length of upto 6 m between the outer faces of walls
measured at right angles. Cross drainage structures with pipes will be termed as culvert,
irrespective of length.
 GENERAL ASPECTS –PROVISIONS CULVERTS
AND BRIDGE

• Culverts and small bridges on roads and highways depends upon

the type of region and terrain.

• Number of culverts in 1 km length of road varies from one for flat

terrain to three in undulating regions & one small bridge (upto 30
m) is found within 1 to 4 km length of the road.

• Number of culverts in hilly/undulating terrain is more than in plain

region and should be decided on physical condition and after
detailed study.

• When catchment area is upto 1 sq. km (100 hectares) a culvert is

required and for catchment area more than 1 sq. km (100 hectares),
a small bridge will be necessary
GENERAL ASPECTS –DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

• Concrete Bridges shall be designed for specified limit states to achieve the objectives of
constructability, safety, serviceability, with due regard to issue of economy, aesthetics and
sustainability.

• For Loads & Load Combination, IRC :- 6 to be referred

• For General Features of Bridges- IRC:- 5 -2015

• For design of concrete structuresIRC:112 shall be followed.

• For seismic design of Bridge IRC :- SP 114 to be referred..

• For Design of Foundation IRC :- 78 to be referred.

• Basic knowledge of above codes is essential for Bridge Engineer

working on DPR projects
 GENERAL ASPECTS –FIXING SPAN LENGTH &
CLEARANCE FOR NAVIGATIONAL RIVER
• Bridges crossing navigable channels of rivers, creeks and canals as well as the shipping
channels in port areas and open seas shall be provided with “navigational spans” which shall be
specially identified and marked to direct the waterway traffic below them.

• Vertical clearances up to the l owest soffit of superstructure and minimum depth of water in the
channel below the maximum laden draft of the barges shall be decided based on the Inland
Waterways Authority of India (Classification of Inland Waterways in India) regulation 2006 and its
amendment from time to time or the concerned Ports and Shipping Authorities.

• Navigational HFL is worked out for 20 year return period and vertical clearance can be provided
according to navigation HFL.

• The span arrangement, horizontal clearances between the inner faces of piers/ pile caps/well
caps(as applicable) within the width of the navigational channel,
 GENERAL ASPECTS –FIXING SPAN LENGTH &
CLEARANCE FOR NAVIGATIONAL RIVER
• IRC:- 6, Clause 220 is applicable to non-tidal portions of inland waterways in which barges having
Dead Weight Tonnage (DWT) mentioned in Annex E of IRC :- 6 generally ply.

• For bridges located in tidal portions of many National Waterways (NWs) and in sea, where larger
barges other than those specified in Annex E ply, relevant data regarding the respective barges may
be collected from the respective Maritime Boards and Port Authorities.

• The Indian waterways have been classified in 7 categories by IWAI. The vessel displacement
tonnage for each of the class of waterway is mentioned for further calculation of barge impact force.

• Barges and their configurations which are likely to ply, their dimensions, the Dead Weight
Tonnage (DWT), the minimum dimensions of waterway in lean section, and minimum clearance
requirements are specified by IWAI. The latest requirements are shown in Annex E
COLLECTION OF HYDRAULIC DESIGN DATA
Catchment Area Distance (u/s and d/s of the crossing) at
which cross-sections should be taken

1. Upto 3.0 sq.km 100 m

2. From 3.0 to 15 sq. 300 m

km

3. Over 15 sq. km 500 m

• Catchment area to be calculated by software’s like BHUVAN developed by ISRO /or by Google Earth.
images in any GIS software or 3-Dimensional CAD formats, which can be used to delineate even small
catchment areas

• For very small streams (catchments of 40 hectares or less) one cross section is sufficient but it
should be carefully plotted so as to represent truly the normal size and shape of the channel on a
straight reach
COLLECTION OF DESIGN DATA
• HFL, LWL & Bed Level of Stream:-

The highest flood level to be ascertained by judicial local observation, supplemented by local enquiry, and marked
on the cross-sections. Design HFL corresponding to design flood of a 100 return period can be found from stage-
discharge Curve. Low Water Level of Stream to be ascertained along with Bed along the bridge axis and along the
stream

• Velocity

Attempts should be made to observe the velocity during an actual flood and, Simplest way is to use a float to find
surface velocity (Vs).

• Geotechnical Investigation

This is generally carried out for Minor & major bridges. Depth of exploration shall vary according to the type of
foundation to be provided

• Return periods
Frequency of peak run off shall be considered as 100 years for bridges & 25 years to 50 years for culverts depending
their maintenance.

• Iso-Pluvial Maps
Iso-pluvial maps prepared jointly by CWC, RDSO, IMD & MORTH and published by CWC for different regions titled
“Flood Estimation Report” give 24 hr.
ESTIMATING FLOOD DISCHARGE FROM THE CONVEYANCE
FACTOR AND SLOPE OF THE STREAM

• The stream with rigid boundaries (bed and banks) the shape and the size
of the cross-section is significantly the same during a flood as after its
subsidence. If the HFL is plotted and the bed slope is measured, it is
simple to calculate the discharge.

• Stream flowing in alluvium, will have a larger cross sectional area when
in flood than that which may be surveyed and plotted after the flood has
subsided.

• During the flood the velocity is high and, therefore, an alluvial stream
scours its bed, but when the flood subsides, the velocity diminishes and
the bed progressively silts up again.

• For estimating the flood conveying capacity of the stream from the
plotted cross-section, ascertain the depth of scour and plot on the cross-
section, the average scoured bed line that is likely to prevail during the
high flood.
ESTIMATING FLOOD DISCHARGE FROM THE CONVEYANCE
FACTOR AND SLOPE OF THE STREAM

Calculation of Velocity: Plot the probable scoured bed line. Measure the cross-sectional area A in m2
and the wetted perimeter P in m. Then calculate the hydraulic mean depth, R by the formula.

R= A/P (in m)

Measure the bed slope S from the plotted longitudinal section of the stream.

Velocity from Manning's formula:

𝐼
V= (R2/3, S1/2)
𝑛
Where
V= Mean velocity of flow
R= the hydraulic mean depth
S= the energy slope which may be taken equal to the bed slope, measured over a
reasonably long reach, say 500 m or more
n= the rugosity co-efficient. For values of n, Judgment and experience are necessary in
selecting a
proper value of n for a given stream.
ESTIMATING FLOOD DISCHARGE FROM THE CONVEYANCE
FACTOR AND SLOPE OF THE STREAM
DESIGN DISCHARGE
Fixing Design Discharge

• Flood discharges can be estimated in three different ways. The values obtained should
be compared. The highest of these values should be adopted as the design discharge Q,
provided it does not exceed the next highest discharge by more than 50 per cent. If it
does, restrict it to that limit. That is 1.5 times of second highest.

• The necessity for this elaborate procedure for fixing Q arises for sizeable structures. As
regards small culverts, Q may be taken as the discharge determined from the run-off
formulae.

• Sound Engineering and Practical knowledge requires that the structure should be able
to pass easily floods of a specified frequency and that extraordinary and rare floods
should pass without causing excessive damage to the structure or the road

• The necessity for this elaborate procedure for fixing Q arises for sizeable structures. As
regards small culverts, Q may be taken as the discharge determined from the run-off
formulae

• For foundation design the discharge should be increased by 30% for catchment Area 3-
3000 Sq km and 10% for Catchment Area above 40000 Sq km ( Refer Clause 703.1.1 of
IRC:- 78
ALLUVIAL STREAMS LACEY'S EQUATIONS
Lacey's Equation:

For natural channels in alluvial beds and having undefined banks, the linear waterway shall be determined from the design
discharge using some accepted rational formula at the discretion of the engineer responsible for the design. One such formula
for regime conditions is:

W = C√(Q)

Where,
W = regime width in meters (equal to effective linear waterway under regime condition)
Q = the maximum design discharge in m3/sec;
C = a constant usually taken as 4.8 for regime channels but it may vary from 4.5 to 6.3 according to local conditions.

• The formula which is applicable for alluvial soils in regime conditions, should not be applied for clayey, bouldery or such
strata.

• The waterway in such cases should be decided on the basis of study and analysis of site and flow conditions by adopting
some rational approach (like performance of existing bridge nearby, on the same river).

• In meandering flood plains and in deltaic regions, the waterway proposed may be as in above clauses, but guide bunds,
flood embankments or other river training works should be provided to train the river to flow through the bridge.

• Hydraulic or Mathematical model studies may be required to ascertain the flow conditions, and design parameters for the
training works and the required waterway
NORMAL SCOUR DEPTH OF STREAMS
For some special reason, the linear waterway L of a bridge across a quasi-alluvial stream is kept less than the natural
unobstructed width W of the stream then the normal scour depth under the bridge D 1 will be greater than the depth D
ascertained above for the unobstructed stream. Scour shall be calculated by the following relationship:

Db = discharge in m3/s per m width

The discharge in Cumecs per meter width. The value of “D b” shall be the maximum of the following:

• The total design discharge divided by lower of the effective linear waterway between abutments or guide bunds, and theoretical
linear waterway.
• The value obtained taking into account any concentration of flow through a portion of the waterway assessed from the study of
the cross-section of the river. Such modification of the value may not be deemed applicable to minor bridges of length upto 60 m.
• Actual observations, if any.

ksf = silt factor for material obtained upto deepest anticipated scour.
= 1 .76 , being the weighted mean diameter of particles in mm.

dsm = mean depth of scour in m.

ALLUVIAL STREAMS PARTICLE SIZE & SILT FACTOR

Type of bed material dm Ksf

Coarse silt 0.04 0.35
Silt/fine sand 0.081 to 0.158 0.5 to 0.6
Medium sand 0.233 to 0.505 0.8 to 1.25
Coarse sand 0.725 1.5
Fine bajri and sand 0.988 1.75
Heavy sand 1.29 to 2.00 2.0 to 2.42
SCOUR IN BOULDARY STRATA – IRC GUIDELINES
Bridge located across streams having gravel or boulder beds (normally having weighted diameter
more than 2 mm), there is yet no rational formula for determining scour depth . However, the
formula given may be applied with the following silt factors, for particle size more than 2.00 mm.

Bed material Mean Size of Silt

Particles Factor
Ksf
Sand (Coarse) (2.0 mm to 4.75 mm) 1.29 2

Gravel (Fine) (4.75mm to 20mm) 5.16 4

Gravel ( Coarse) (20 to 80mm) 26.00 9
Cobble and Boulder > 80 mm 26.00 9

The results may be compared with actual observations at the site

or from experiences on similar structure nearby and their
performance and decisions taken on the basis of sound
engineering judgement.
NORMAL SCOUR DEPTH OF STREAMS

Scour in clay:

Scour in clay is generally less than scour in sand. Normally in field we get a mixture of sand and
clay at many places. For the purpose of assessment following definition of sand and clay can be
given.

Clay- Where ᶲ is less than 15° & c (Cohesion of soil) is more than 0.2 kg/cm 2 . In
clay silt clay factor (Ksfc) is adopted

Ksfc = F (1+

Where
c= Cohesion in kg/cm2 and

F= 1.5 ᶲ for ᶲ ≥ 10° < 15°

= 1.75 for ᶲ ≥ 5°< 10°

= 2.0 for ᶲ <50°
HYDRAULIC AND MATHEMATICAL MODEL STUDIES

These Studies should be Carried Out Wherever Necessary, such as :

In case of big rivers with large discharge having uncertain and complex flow conditions and for
other abnormal situations

• When the linear waterway and scour cannot be accurately calculated or

• when the protection and river training works cannot be designed reliably because of the uncertain or complex
conditions.

• The studies should be carried out at the reputed, reliable and accredited institutions only where requisite
facilities are available.

The Site and Contour surveys for these studies should be done very carefully, with precision and it should be
ensured that these along with bed materials are correctly represented in the Model.

Sufficient Cross section of River both at upstream and downstream of river should be taken to prepare DTM model
of ground.
DEPTH OF OPEN FOUNDATIONS FOR BRIDGES
The following should be kept in view while fixing the depth of bridge foundations:

In Soil.

The embedment of foundations in soil shall be based on assessment of anticipated scour. Foundations
may be taken down to a comparatively shallow depth below the bed surface provided good bearing
stratum is available and foundation is protected against scour. The minimum depth of open
foundations shall be upto stratum having adequate bearing capacity but not less than 2.0m below
the scour level or protected scour level. In protected beds having protection of scour all-around,
this may dispensed with.

In Rocks.

When a substantial stratum of solid rock or other material not erodible, the foundations shall be
securely anchored into that material. This means about 0.6 m into hard rocks with an ultimate
crushing strength of 10 MPa or above and 1.5 m in all other cases.

All Beds.

The pressure on the foundation material must be well within the safe bearing capacity of the
material. This enable one to fix the level of the foundations of abutments and piers.
 PROTECTION WORK
• In case structures founded on erodible soil are protected against scour by floor
protection works, the following is considered as sound practice.

• restricting the scour, floor protection may be provided.

• The floor protection will comprise of rigid flooring with curtain walls and flexible
apron so as to check scour, washing away or disturbance by piping action, etc.
Usually performance of similar existing works is the best guide for finalizing the
design of new works.

• velocity under the structures does not exceed 2 m/s and the intensity of
discharge is limited to 2m3/m. In case it does not satisfies, design of floor
protection work need to be done as per IRC 89
 PROTECTION WORK-SPECIFICATIONS
• The rigid flooring should be provided under the bridge and it should extend for a
distance of at least 3 m on upstream side and 5 m on downstream side of the
bridge.

• For splayed wing walls of the structure are likely to be longer, the flooring should
extend upto the line connecting the end of wing walls on either side of the bridge.

• The top of flooring should be kept 300 mm below the lowest bed level. Flooring
should consist of 150 mm thick flat stone/bricks on edge in cement mortar 1:3
laid over 300 mm thick cement
 PROTECTION WORK-SPECIFICATIONS

• The rigid flooring should be enclosed by curtain walls (tied to the wing walls) with
a minimum depth below floor level of 2 m on upstream side and 2.5 m on
downstream side

• Flexible apron 1 m thick comprising of loose stone boulders (Weighing not less
than 40 kg) should be provided beyond the curtain walls for a minimum distance
of 3 m on upstream side and 6 m on downstream side

• Work of flooring/apron etc., should be simultaneously completed along with the

work on foundations so that the foundation work completed is not endangered.

• Maintenance should be carried out after every Monsoon

RAFT FOUNDATION
• Raft foundation is preferred when the good foundable strata is not available
within a reasonable depth. Thus, the sandy layer or sand and silty
foundations warrant provision of raft foundation.

• Raft top should be kept 300 mm below the lowest bed level. This will ensure
protection to raft and also would avoid silting tendency on U/S and scouring
tendency on D/S. The raft will also not be subjected to stresses due to
temperature variations.

• U/S and D/S aprons should be provided in accordance with IRC 89 to

protect the bridge from scouring or undermining. The width of U/S and D/S
aprons should be 1.5 dsm and 2.0 dsm respectively.

• The depth of cut-off wall should be 30 cm below the scour level. Scour
Depth need not be increased by any factor as in case of open foundations
as stipulated in IRC: 78).
RIVER TRAINING WORKS
IMPORTANCE OF RIVER TRAINING WORKS

• Reduce bridge structure length which has significant impact on

project cost.
• Allow road connectivity in severing flooding conditions in flood
plains.
• To provide a safe passage to the flood discharges, without over-
flowing to the banks for protection of cultivated & in habited
areas.
• To protect the river-banks from heavy erosion, and to improve
the alignment by stabilizing the river channel.
• To transport the bed & suspended sediments load in Rivers with
a maximum efficiency.
AVAILABLE CODES AND GUIDLINES

• IRC:89-2019- Guidelines For Design and Construction of River Training and

Control Works for Road Bridges

• River Training and Protection Works for Railway Bridges, Indian Railways
Institute of Civil Engg – 2016

• IS:10751-2022- Planning and Design of Guide Banks for Alluvial Rivers-

Guidelines.

• Hand-Book for Flood Protection/ Anti Erosion & River Training Works, Central
Water Commission 2012.

• IRC:SP:116-2018 Guidelines for Design and Installation of Gabion Structures

POINTS OF CONSIDERATION FOR RIVER TRAINING WORKS

The necessity and suitability of River Training Works should be carefully

assessed. For effective design of river training works, following useful
details are to be collected:

• History of river change of river course - Satellite Maps, Toposheets, Site

Observations, behavior of river at existing upstream/downstream structures.

• Physical/Mathematical model study to understand complex behaviour of

large rivers at proposed structure location.

• Impact of proposed protection work on river water levels at upstream,

stability, flow velocities at downstream, existing structures in vicinity.

• Design of approach road protection, abutment protection as per codal

requirements/model studies.
DESIGN OF GUIDE BUNDS
• Thickness of pitching: Minimum thickness of pitching is required to withstand
the negative head created by velocity. This may be determined by the following
relationship:

Where,
t = Thickness of pitching in m,
V = Velocity in m/s,
g = Acceleration due to gravity in m/s2,
Ss = Specific gravity of stones.

• Filter: The thickness of filter shall be 300 mm and provided in two layers of 150
mm each.
 SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE GEOTECHNICAL
INVESTIGATION
• The work shall cover investigation to determine the suitability or
otherwise of the soil or rock to support the foundations of the bridge.

• To determine soil parameters and rock characteristics required for the

design of foundations by in-situ testing or testing of samples/cores taken
from bores/drill holes.

• The subsurface investigation shall be carried out in such a way that the
profiles of different types of soil for the entire length of the proposed
structure are obtained and recorded.

• To obtain mechanical and physical properties such as grain-size

distribution, sensitivity, existence of deleterious material in soil or ground
water, porosity of rock, subsidence due to mining, ground water level,
artesian condition,
 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION
EXTENT AND NUMBER OF BORES & DEPTH
• Investigations shall cover the entire length of the bridge. Bores shall be
taken at the location of each pier and abutment of the bridge/viaduct

• A minimum of two bores shall be taken in the approaches on either side,

along the centre line of the alignment, at a distance of 50 m and 120 m
behind the abutment positions.

• The bores shall be taken below the proposed founding level to a depth of
at least 1.5 times the width of foundation. In case the soil at that level is
found to be unsuitable or of doubtful bearing capacity, the depth of
investigation below the proposed founding level, shall be extended to 4
times the width of foundation or till firm and stable soil or rock is met
with.

• If rock is met with, the depth of drilling into rock having RQD more than
75, may be limited to 3 metres
 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION-DEPTH
• For embankments and guide bunds, the depth of bore should cover all strata likely to
cause undesirable settlement affecting their stability. The depth of bore holes below
the ground level may ordinarily be 2.5 times the maximum height of the
embankment guide bund, subject to a minimum of 20m. However, borings can be
terminated at shallower depths when firm strata or bed rock is encountered.

• Borings should be carried up to sufficient depths so as to ascertain the nature of

strata around the pile shaft and below the pile tip.

• Depth of boring for Pile foundation shall. not be less than:

• 1.5 times estimated length of pile in soil or 15 m below the proposed founding
level

• 15 times diameter of pile in ordinary/jointed rock but minimum 15 m in such

rock

• 4 times diameter of pile in hard rock but minimum 3 m in such rock

 LIQUEFACTION
• Soil liquefaction a phenomenon during serious ground shaking by which
saturated granular materials go through a change from a solid to a fluid
like fluid-like state because of increased pore water pressures.

• This change causes a significant decrease of in the soil shear strength

and stiffness with serious consequences on the structures that might be
situated at or close to the region.

• The phenomenon occurs in water saturated unconsolidated soils

affected by seismic S waves (secondary waves), which cause ground
vibrations during earthquakes.

• IRC:- SP-114-2018 shall be referred for calculating the Liquefaction

Potential
 LIQUEFACTION
• The potential effects of liquefaction on
soils and Foundations shall be evaluated.

• The assessment shall consider the

following effects of liquefaction:

• Loss in strength in the liquefied layer

or layers,.

• Flow failures (lateral spreading),

• And slope instability Liquefaction-

induced ground settlement resulting in
‘downdrag’ down drag’ of
foundations, .
 LIQUEFACTION
• The evaluation of a liquefaction susceptibility may be omitted when
saturated sandy soil are found at depth greater than 20 m from ground
surface.

• The liquefaction hazards may be neglected when at least one of the

following conditions is fulfilled
• The sands have a clay content greater than 25% with Plasticity
Index PI>10
• The sands have silt contents greater than 35% and corrected N
value more than 20
• The sands are clean with corrected N value more than 30
•
• The liquefaction potential shall be evaluated by well-established
methods of geotechnical engineering and as per methods given in
Appendix A-5 of IRC :- SP-114.

• Ground improvement against liquefaction should either to compact the

soil to increase its penetration on resistance or use drainage to reduce
the excess pore water pressure generated by ground shaking ..
SHALLOW FOUNDATION
SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Suitable where a good bearing stratum is available at shallow
depth.

On Elastic material such as Soil or soft rock

• Minimum depth of open foundation ≥ 2.0m below scour level

• No Tension permitted in any load combination

• Bearing capacity can be enhanced by 25%, except for normal
case.

On Inelastic material such as hard rock

Minimum depth of embedment in hard rock 0.6m
All other cases 1.5m
Tension permitted. The reduced area 67% of total area including
seismic and 80% for other combination.
SHALLOW FOUNDATION-SUITABILITY

• This kind of foundations are suitable where

excavation is possible by manual or mechanical
means with no/least disturbance to traffic or other
considerations.

• The founding strata/material can be visually

examined and if necessary depth can be increased
based on soil expert advice.

• Construction Speed is excellent. Dewatering may be

necessary where ground water is encountered at
shallow depth.
SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Deck slab Deck slab

Pier

Footing
 SHALLOW FOUNDATION-DESIGN STEPS
• Evaluate the loads/forces from superstructure i.e DL, SIDL, LL (max moment and
max reaction case)

• Calculate the loads/forces from substructure i.e piercap/dirtwall/pier/wt. of soil/wt. of

footing etc.

• Summarize the loads (P) and forces/moments (ML & MT) for various load
combinations.

• Check the stability of foundation from sliding and overturning considerations.

• Ascertain the bearing pressure (P/A±ML/ZL±MT/ZT) at all corners/critical locations

of foundation from the loads/moments in two principal directions i.e Longitudinal &
Transverse.

• Calculate the Bending moment at critical sections for heel and toe of footing i.e at
face of pier/column.
SHALLOW FOUNDATION-DESIGN STEPS
• Calculate the shear force at critical sections i.e at “d”, effective depth
from face of pier/column.

• Check whether provided depth of footing at face of pier and at “d”

distance of pier satisfies the bending and shear criteria. Minimum depth of
footing is 300mm.

• Ascertain the area of tension reinforcement required from bending

consideration.

• Ensure that minimum area of tension reinforcement is satisfied i.e (0.13%

of C/S area). As per clause 16.5.1 of IRC -112 -2020

• Check whether the section is safe in shear from the provided

reinforcement. If not revise the depth of the footing or enhance the area
of reinforcement such that the foundation is safe in shear criteria.

• Check for punching shear stress at d/2 from face of pier . Clause 10.4 of
IRC:- 112
SHALLOW FOUNDATION

• Stability & Suitability of founding strata

Factor of Safety for Stability Checks

Case Without seismic With seismic

Against overturning 2 1.5

Against sliding 1.5 1.25

Against deep-seated failure 1.25 1.15

DEEP FOUNDATION -PILES
DEEP FOUNDATION
When We Use Deep Foundation
• Low Bearing Capacity of soil
• Non availability of proper bearing stratum at shallow depths
• Heavy loads from the super structure for which shallow foundation may
not be economical or feasible

Classification of Deep Foundations:

• Pile
• Caissons/Well-foundation

Well foundations are heavier in section and they are sunk to the
required depth.
PILE FOUNDATION
• A reinforced concrete post which are usually vertical, used as a structural
element for transferring the loads at the required depth is called PILE
• Piles are columnar elements which have the function of transferring load
from the superstructure through weak compressible strata or through
water, onto stiffer or more compact and less compressible soils or onto
rock.
• Piles used in structures subjected to lateral loads from the impact of
seismic, breaking, water current etc.
• Combinations of vertical and horizontal loads are carried where piles are
used to support, bridge piers and abutments,.
• These are the long slender members either driven or cast-in-situ and may
be subjected to vertical or lateral or both vertical & lateral loads.
CLASSIFICATION OF PILE
• Based on material
Concrete
Steel
Timber

• Based on method of construction/installation.

Driven /Displacement Pre cast Piles
Driven/Displacement Cast in Situ Piles
Bored/ Replacement Pre cast piles
Bored/ Replacement Cast in situ piles.

• Based on Load transfer mechanism

End bearing piles
Friction/Floating piles
Bearing cum Friction piles
LARGE DIAMETER BORED PILES

• Size : 450mm to 2m (Up to 3.0m for special case)

• Large diameter monopiles
• Lengths : Varies
• Structural Capacity : 80Ton to 3000Tons or even more
• Concrete Grade : 20MPa to 45MPa (Tremie)
• Joints : None
• Installation Method : Drill then Cast-In-Situ
PILE GROUP-TYPICAL

How to Fix
(i) Spacing between Piles in a group
(ii) No. of Piles
LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM

• End bearing cum friction piles carry vertical compressive loads partly
by means of resistance offered by the hard stratum at the tip of the
pile and partly by the friction developed between the pile shaft and
soil.
• Pure friction piles carry the major part of loads only by means of
friction developed between pile shaft and soil; and pure End bearing
piles only by means of bearing resistance at the tip of the pile.
• In both the above cases lateral loads are carried by the lateral
resistance offered by the surrounding soil.
PILE CAPACITIES DETERMINATION
Field Approach Geotechnical Capacity Approach

• A Test pile of required dimensions is • In this approach the pile capacity is

constructed in the field and a load calculated using formulae into which
soil data is fed for obtaining the
test is conducted to assess the
capacity.
capacity of the pile.
• Appendix -5 of IRC:78-2014 shall be
• This approach gives more realistic
referred
estimate of pile capacity. However it
is time consuming activity
• IS 2911 –Part-IV & Appendix-7 of
IRC :-78-2014
LOAD TEST ON SINGLE PILE
• For determining the safe load on pile following type of loading is applied
– Vertical Load Test ( Compression)
– Lateral load test
– Pull –out test
• Initial Load Test
– Initial design of an individual pile, confirmation of its capacity by either initial load
test or by reconfirmation of actual soil parameters, modification of design and final
adoption should pass through following design
• Maintained load test ( Static vertical load test)
• Lateral load test
• Dynamic load test
• Cyclic load test
• Pile integrity testing
STEPS FOR DESIGN & INSTALLATION
• Initial design of an individual pile, confirmation of its capacity by either initial
load test or by reconfirmation of actual soil parameters, modification of design
and final adoption should pass through following design
– Comprehensive & detailed sub-surface investigation for piles
– Design pile group based on geotechnical capacity calculation
– Carrying out initial load test on pile for axial load capacity including uplift
capacity. This load test to be conducted for 2.5 times the design load
– Routine load test to be conducted for the purpose of verifying safe load
from static analysis, detection of any unusual performance contrary to the
finding of initial load test and workmanship of already cast piles in a group.
For routine test load is considered as 1.5 of safe load
STEPS FOR DESIGN PILE FOUNDATIONS

• Evaluate the loads/forces from superstructure i.e DL, SIDL,LL

• Calculate the loads/forces from substructure i.e piercap/dirtwall/pier/wt. of
soil/wt. of Pilecap etc.
• Summarize the loads (P) and forces/moments (ML & MT) for various load
combinations.
• Suitable pile group configuration is assumed based on loads/moments
requirement and also pile spacing requirements as per codal guidelines.
• Calculate the pile reactions on each pile based on its orientation in pile group
i.e (P/N±ML/ZL±MT/ZT)
STEPS FOR DESIGN PILE FOUNDATIONS

• The moments on each pile is calculated based on fixed headed

condition and the depth of fixity as per guidelines of IS:2911.
• The pile section is checked for pile reaction and the moments as
calculated above by providing the requisite reinforcement.
• Minimum area of reinforcement in pile is 0.4% of cross sectional area
• All the piles are connected through a pile cap of thickness (1.5 times
pile diameter).
• The pile cap may designed based on strut and tie model or as flexure
method.

•
STEPS FOR DESIGN PILE FOUNDATIONS

• The moments on each pile is calculated based on fixed headed

condition and the depth of fixity as per guidelines of IS:2911.
• The pile section is checked for pile reaction and the moments as
calculated above by providing the requisite reinforcement.
• Minimum area of reinforcement in pile is 0.4% of cross sectional area
• All the piles are connected through a pile cap of thickness (1.5 times
pile diameter).
• The pile cap may designed based on strut and tie model or as flexure
method.

•
STEPS FOR DESIGN PILE FOUNDATIONS

• Pile caps are generally designed based on flexure theory by

calculating the bending moments at face of pier from pile reactions
from one side of pier.
• Calculate the area of tension reinforcement required.
• Check the shear stress at “d” distance from face of pier and if
necessary suitable shear reinforcement is provided. Check as clause
10.3 of IRC:- 112-2020
• Check the punching of pile/pier shear stress at d/2 from face of pier.
Clause 10.4 of IRC:- 112-2020
• Plie cap can also be designed by Strut & Tie method
MONOPILES DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION

2.3 x 2.3m
PIER SIZE
Plan

3.2m PILE
DIA.

Elevatio
n
Substructure
elevation at support
MONOPILES DESIGN – MODELLING

P23 P24 P25 • The structural modelling in “MIDAS”-Version 2.3

P21 P22
(2020)
• Beam elements for superstructure, substructure
and monopile/ pile foundation.
• Pier and pile system are connected with rigid links.
• Support conditions are modelled as pile springs
idealised at every metre length of pile as per GI
report
• Composite section property for Monopile with liner
MONOPILE GEOTECH DESIGN APPROACH

• Pile design to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification 8 th Edition 2017

• Soil model at each location to be taken GI borehole. Generally good to medium weathered
rock.
• RocLab is used to derive Mohr-Coulomb parameters for input to pile compressive resistance.
• Wallap analysis was generally used
• Vertical capacity is calculated via spreadsheet with the following constraints
• Pile liner is considered to extend to the base of the weathered rock, no axial capacity from lined section
considered

• Scour to be considered if any

• Rock socket is the length of pile below the liner

• Resistance factor j is 0.5 x 80% (=0.4) for end and side resistance – from AASHTO requirement including
reduction by 20% as single shaft supporting a bridge pier
MONOPILE GEOTECH DESIGN APPROACH CONTINUED

• Horizontal capacity is calculated by an iterative process:

• Initial model in Wallap – gives spring stiffnesses for a given load (mobilised soil resistance). Rock
stiffness derived using Emperical Formulas ( Hoek and Diederichs Erm modulus derivation)

• Spring stiffness are fed into MIDAS model – new load is calculated

• New load is put back into Wallap to derive revised spring stiffnesses – repeat cycle until load and
corresponding deflections concur with MIDAS output

• Plaxis 3D has been used to provide an alternative analysis for the initial modules for side-by-
side comparison with the intended design method to help calibrate the results and give
confidence in the design approach
MONOPILE STRUCTURAL DESIGN APPROACH
• Generally IRC principles of Design adopted verified by using AASHTO
principles
• Monopile ‘push-over’ analysis performed using full range of design
loads to confirm rock socket length
• Predicted monopile bending used to provide P-Y data for structural
design team
• Midas analysis produces revised pile head loads based on P-Y data
• New pile head loads used in push-over analysis to revise P-Y data
• Continued iteration between geotechnical and structural analysis to
converge solutions
• Pile forces (bending moment and shear force) from Midas used for
monopile reinforcement design
DEEP FOUNDATION
–WELL/CAISSON
WELL FOUNDATION -GENERAL

• Large, thick, hollow cylindrical well sunk into the ground to transmit
loads from superstructure and substructure of bridge to the founding
soil
• Provided in deep water cannels with having a single/double dredge
hole. While selecting the shape, size and type of well, the size of
abutment and pier to be accommodated,
• Suitable for very heavy vertical and lateral loadings as well as large
scour depths
• Commonly used and popular type of foundation in alluvial plains in
South Asian region
• Not suitable for clay sand soils containing large boulders.
WELL FOUNDATION –DESIGN PROCEDURE

Design of well foundation is carried out in the following steps .

• Determine the shape and size of well foundation

• Determine the depth of well foundation

• Check the stability of well foundation-Check stability at elastic

state-Check stability as per IRC:-78, working stress method

• Perform structural design of well foundation-Design well cap-

Design well steining-Design well curb-Design of bottom plug –
Under SLS & ULS as per IRC:112-2020 and Table B2 to B4 of
IRC :- 6 for partial safety factors
ABUTMENT & PIER WELL –GENERAL FEATURES
WELL FOUNDATION - DESIGN PROCEDURE

•Procedure for Stability Calculations

• The active and passive pressure co-efficient (Ka & KP respectively) shall be
calculated according to Coulomb's formula taking into account the wall
friction. For cohesive soils, the effect of 'c' may be added to the same as per
procedure given by Bell.
• The factor of safety in assessing the allowable passive resistance shall be 2
for load combinations without wind or seismic forces and 1.6 for load
combinations with wind or seismic forces
• Pier wells & Abutment well founded in cohesive soils, the factor of safety as
stipulated for the type of soil shall be applied on the net ultimate soil
resistance, viz., (Pp - Pa) where Pp and Pa are total passive and active
pressure respectively mobilized below the maximum scour level.
• Abutment wells in both cohesive and non-cohesive soils, the active pressure
on soil above the maximum scour level (triangular variation of pressure) shall
be separately evaluated and considered as load combined with the other
loads acting on the abutment and no factor of safety shall be taken for the
above components of active pressure. Effects of surcharge due to live load
should be restricted only upto the abutment portion.
WELL FOUNDATION –HOW TO FIX SIZE

Following parameters governs the design of well foundation :-

• The type of superstructure configuration and load transfer mechanism
• Bearing Capacity – Base Pressure to be within permissible limits of Bearing capacity
both in normal & seismic case under different load combination
• Settlements : Settlement ( Total & differential) to be fixed as per type of
superstructure. The differential settlement shall be limited depending upon the
following functional and on structural & functional considerations acceptable
differential settlement between two neighboring piers shall not be greater than 1 in
400 of the span to ensure riding comfort,as specified in Clause 706.3.2.1.
• Minimum grip length –Minimum grip length shall be taken as one third of maximum
scour level. Therefor minimum depth of foundation should not be less than 1.33 times
the deepest scour level below HFL
• The minimum dimensions of dredge-hole shall not be less than 3 m. In case there is
deep standing water, properly designed floating caissons is used
• Circular wells are most preferred because they are relatively strong, simple in
construction , easy in sinking. Circular wells are not suitable for wide roads with wide
substructures. Double D and rectangular types are commonly used wells after circular
wells.
 COMPONENT OF WELL FOUNDATION -STEINING

• It is the wall of well & is built over a wedge shaped portion called well curb. The steining is
designed such that it can be sunk under it own weight. The thickness should be sufficient
so as to overcome skin friction developed during sinking by its own weight.
• Thickness of the steining should be such so that it is possible to sink the well without
excessive kentledge and without getting damaged during sinking.
• The steining should also be able to resist differential earth pressure developed during sand
blow or other conditions. Stresses at various levels of the steining should be within
permissible limits under all conditions for loads that may be transferred to the well.
• The minimum thickness of the well steining shall not be less than 500 mm and satisfy the
following relationship
h = Kd / Sqrt L
h = minimum thickness of steining in m, d = external diameter of circular well
of dumb bell shaped well, L = depth of wells in metre below top of well cap or LWL
whichever is more, K = a constant, K = 0.03 for cement concrete well, K = 0.05
for brick well, & K = 0.039 Twin Double D well,
COMPONENT OF WELL FOUNDATION -STEINING

• The minimum steining thickness may be varied from above formula under very soft clay strata,
hard clay stara & bouldary strata
• Specialized methods of sinking, such as, jack down method, are adopted then the steining
thickness may be adjusted according to design and construction requirements.
• When the depth of well below well cap is equal to or more than 30 m, the thickness of the
steining of the well may be reduced above scour level in a slope of 1 horizontal to 3 vertical such
that the reduced thickness of the steining should not be less than as mention in formula for the
depth of well upto scour level with the reduced diameter.
• The stress in the reduced section of steining shall also be checked. The stresses in well steining
shall be checked at such critical sections where tensile and compressive stresses are likely to be
maximum and also where there is change in the area of reinforcement or in the concrete mix.
 COMPONENT OF WELL FOUNDATION -STEINING

• For plain concrete wells, vertical reinforcements (whether mild steel or deformed bars) in the
steining shall not be less than 0.12 percent of gross sectional area of the actual thickness
provided. This shall be equally distributed on both faces of the steining.
• The vertical reinforcements shall be tied up with hoop steel not less than 0.04 percent of the
volume per unit length of the steining,
• In case where the well steining is designed as a reinforced concrete element, it shall be
considered as a column section subjected to combined axial load and bending.
• For RCC steining the amount of vertical reinforcement provided shall not be less than 0.2 percent
(for either mild steel or deformed bars) of the actual gross sectional area of the steining. On the
inner face, a minimum of 0.06 percent (of gross area) steel shall be provided
COMPONENT OF WELL FOUNDATION

• Well Curb –
• The well curb supports the steining. The curb should be slightly projected from the
steining to reduce the skin friction during sinking of well. It is made of RCC with steel
cutting edge.
• The minimum reinforcement to be provided is 72 kg per cubic meter. The internal
angle of the curb should be kept at about 30° to 37° and may be increased or
decreased based on past experience and geotechnical data.

• Cutting Edge –
• The cutting edge is either projected below the curb as a sharp edge or can also have
flat bottom. The projected edge is likely to be damaged in strata of gravels and
boulders. In such soils the flat bottom cutting edge is provided.
• The mild steel cutting edge shall be strong enough and not less than 40 kg/m to
facilitate sinking of the well through the types of strata expected to be encountered
without suffering any damage. It shall be properly anchored to the with curb. For
sinking through rock, cutting edge should be suitably designed
COMPONENT OF WELL FOUNDATION
• Bottom Plug –
• The bottom plug is made bowled shape in order to have an arch action. The bottom
plug transmits load to soil below. When sunk to its final depth bottom part is
concreted to seal the bottom completely. The thickness varies from 1/6 to full inside
diameter of the well so as to be able to resist uplift forces.
• The concreting should be done in one continuous operation. When wells contain more
than one dredge hole all should be plugged to the same height. If the well is to rest
on rock, it should be anchored properly by taking it 25 cm to 30 cm deep into rock
The bottom plug should be of rich concrete (1:2:4) with extra 10 % of cement.

• Sand Filling –
• After concreting the bottom plug the sand is filled above the bottom plug and below
top plug. Sand filling provide stability of well, reduce tensile stress produced by
bending moment and distributes the load of super structure on to the bottom plug.
Sand filling relieves load to steining to some extent

• Top /Intermediate Plug –

• This is a plug at the top of the well below the well cap. This helps transferring the
load through the granular material into the staining
COMPONENT OF WELL FOUNDATION

• Well Cap –
• The well cap is a RCC slab of sufficient strength to transmit the forces from pier to the
body of well. The dimension of the well cap should be sufficient to accommodate the
pier.
• The recommended minimum thickness is 1.0m.
• The bottom of well cap shall be laid as low as possible but above the LWL in the
active channel. Where the bed level is higher than LWL the bottom of well cap may be
suitably raised.
• Well cap is designed as a plate supported at the boundary by steining and subjected
to vertical loads & moments through the substructure. The load is considered after 45
degree dispersion through the depth of the slab, upon the effective depth
 WELL FOUNDATION - DESIGN PROCEDURE

Tilt & Shift

• Soil stratum through which the wells are sunk are very rarely uniform and therefore, the
resistance offered by these layers to the sinking is different in different parts of the wells
due to which tilt and shift of well may occur. The effect of tilt and shift is to cause extra
foundation pressure and this pressure shall be considered in design.

• As far as possible, the wells shall be sunk plumb without any tilts and shifts. However, a tilt
of 1 in 80 and a shift of 150 mm due to translation (both additive) in a direction which will
cause most severe effect shall be considered in the design of well foundations
 TILT OF WELL (FIGURES)

Tilted well elevation Plan at Top Plan at bottom

Tilt & Shift = Weight up to well top(0.150+Height of well from Frl to Well cap top/80)+Weight
of well ( Height of well)/2x80
 SHIFT OF WELL (FIGURES)

Shifted well elevation Plan at Top/Bottom

SUBSTRUCTURE DESIGN & DRAWINGS
GENERAL DEFINITION
Substructure is a supporting system for the superstructure. It consists of the
following Pier, abutment, Wingwall, foundation.
BASIC TYPES OF PIER/COLUMNS
Function :- To transfer the superstructure vertical loads to the foundation and
to resist all horizontal and transverse forces acting on the bridge.

WALL TYPE HAMMERHED/ PORTAL/

L > 4xB CANTILEVER TYPE FRAME TYPE
PIER SHAPES
REAL IMAGES
BASIC TYPES OF BRIDGE ABUTMENTS
Function :- These are the first and last supports of the bridge, also acts as a
retaining structure for the embankment

WALL TYPE COUNTERFORT SPILL THROUGH

TYPE TYPE
IMAGES
PILE DESIGN
GEOTECHNICAL CAPACITY OF PILE
FOUNDATION IN SOIL
EXAMPLE-
Determine the allowable pile load capacity of a 18m long, 1 m dia. bored concrete pile
as shown in the Fig. below-
Solution-

As per IRC:78-
The Ultimate load Carrying
Capacity(Qu) is given by:
Qu=Ru + Rf (1)

Where
Ru = Ultimate Base Resistance

Rf= Ultimate Shaft Resistance

 ULTIMATE BASE RESISTANCE (RU)
Ultimate base resistance may be calculated from
following:
Ru=Ap (0.5DYNy+PdNq)+ApNcCp (2)

Where
Ap=Cross sectional area of base of pile
D=Pile diameter
Y=Effective unit weight of soil at pile tip
Nq & Ny= Bearing capacity factors based on angle of
internal friction at pile tip (As per IS-6403)
Nc= Bearing capacity factor taken as 9

Cp= Average cohesion at pile tip

Pd= effective overburden pressure at pile tip limited

to 20 times diameter of pile for piles having length
equal to more than 20times diameter
D= Pile diameter =1 m
Ap= Cross sectional area of base of pile =0.785 m 2

Y=Effective unit weight of soil at pile tip= 10kN/m2

For Ф=33o , Nq =27.34 & Ny= 37.77

N c= 9

Cp= 0

Pd= 3X16 + 6X8 + 9X10=186 kN/m2

Ultimate Base Resistance,

Ru=Ap (0.5DYNy+PdNq)+ApNcCp

Ru=0.785 (0.5 X 1 X 10 X 37.77 +186 X 27.34)

+ 0.785 X 9 X 0

=0.785 (188.85+5085.24)+0 = 4140.16kN

ULTIMATE SIDE RESISTANCE (RF)
Ultimate side resistance may be calculated from following:
(3)

Where
K=Coefficient of earth pressure (may be taken as 1.5)
=Effective overburden pressure along the embedment of pile for
the layer ith where I varies from 1 to n
= Angle of wall friction between pile and soil in degrees. It may
be taken equal to angle of internal friction of soil
= Surface area of pile shaft in the ith layer
= Surface area of pile shaft
= Reduction factor (As per IRC 78)
= average cohesion throughout the embedded length of the pile
Layer I: Loose Sand
Depth of layer=3m
=(3X16)/2= 24 kN/m2

=9.42 m2
=0
Ultimate side resistance for layer I,
=
=1.5 X 24 X tan30 X9.42 + 0
=195.79+0 =195.79 kN
Layer II: Soft Clay
Depth of layer=6m
=3x16+(6x8)/2= 72 kN/m2

=18.84 m2
=15 kN/m2
=0.7 (As per IRC 78)
Ultimate side resistance for layer II,
=
=1.5x72xtan0x18.84 + 0.7x15x18.84
=0+197.92 =197.92 kN
Layer III: Dense Sand
Depth of layer=9m
=3X16+6X8+(9X10)/2= 141
kN/m2

=28.27 m2
=0 kN/m2
Ultimate side resistance for
layer III,
=
=1.5x141xtan33x28.27 + 0
=3883.47+0 =3883.47 kN
Ultimate side resistance,
=++
=195.79+197.92+3883.47

=4277.18 kN

The Ultimate load Carrying Capacity(Qu) is

given by:
Qu=Ru + Rf
=4140.16+4277.18

=8417.34 kN

Considering Factor of Safety of 2.5,

Safe load Carrying Capacity= 8417.34/2.5

=3366.93 kN
GEOTECHNICAL CAPACITY PILE
FOUNDATION IN ROCK
EXAMPLE-
Determine the allowable pile load capacity of a 14m long, 1m dia. bored concrete
pile as shown in the Fig. below. The properties and depth of the rock layers are
mentioned below.
Solution-
As per IRC 78-
Piles in rocks and weathered rocks of varying degree of weathering derive their capacity
by end bearing and socket side resistance. The ultimate load carrying capacity may be
calculated from either of the 2 methods mentioned below-
• Method 1- shall be applicable where cores of the rock can be taken and unconfined
compressive strength established using standard method of testing.
• Method 2- is applicable where the rock strata is highly fragmented, where RQD is nil or
(CR+RQD)/2 is less than 30% or when the crushing strength is less than 10MPa.
 METHOD 1

Ultimate pile capacity(in Newtons)-

Qu = Re + Raf = ksp .qc.df. Ab + As.Cus

Q allow = (Re/3) + (Raf/6)

Where,
Q allow = Allowable capacity of Pile
Re= Ultimate end bearing

R af = Ultimate side socket shear

Ksp = An empirical co-efficient (CR+RQD)/2 Ksp

30% 0.3
CR= Core Recovery (%)
100% 1.2
RQD= Rock Quality Designation (%)
For intermediate values, Ksp shall be linearly interpolated
METHOD 1 (CONT…)

qc = Average unconfined compressive strength of rock core below base of pile in MPa

Ab= Cross-sectional area of base of pile

df= Depth factor = 1 + 0.4 x(Length of Socket/ Diameter of Socket)

However, value should not be taken more than 1.2.

As = Surface area of socket

Cus= Ultimate shear strength of rock along socket length,

= 0.225√qc, but restricted to shear capacity of concrete of the pile, qc- UCS of rock
 METHOD 2
Ultimate pile capacity(in Newtons)-
Qu = Re + Raf = Cub .Nc. Ab + As.Cus
Shear Strength/ Moderately Weak Very Weak
Q allow = (Re/3) + (Raf/6) Consistency weak
Approx. N Value 300-200 200-100 100-60
Where,
Shear 3.3-1.9 1.9-0.7 0.7-0.4
Q allow = Allowable capacity of Pile Strength/Cohesion
Re= Ultimate end bearing in MPa

R af = Ultimate side socket shear

Cub= Average shear strength below base of pile

Cus= Ultimate shear strength along socket length

N c= 9

Ab= Cross-sectional area of base of pile

As = Surface area of socket

In the current example,
The top 8m is overburden, it shall be
therefore ignored and not considered in the
load capacity computation.

Rock Layer CR RQD (CR+RQD)/2

(%) (%) (%)

Weathered 50 40 45
Rock
Slightly 90 80 85
Weathered/
Fresh Rock

As the (CR+RQD)/2 >30%, Method 1 should

be used.
As per the Method 1,
Ultimate pile capcity(in Newtons)-
Qu = Re + Raf = ksp .qc.df. Ab + As.Cus

Ultimate end Bearing:

Re = ksp .qc.df. Ab

As the pile tip is rested in the rock layer II,

(CR+RQD)/2=85%, ksp= 1.007

qc= 25MPa

df= 1+0.4X6/1 =3.4 >1.2

Therefore, df= 1.2

Ab=0.785 m2 = 0.785 X 106 mm2

Re =1.007x25x1.2x0.785x X 106 N

=23714.85 kN
Ultimate Side Socket Resistance
Raf = As.Cus

As per IRC 78, for calculation of socket friction

capacity, the top 300mm depth of the rock
shall be neglected.
Rock Layer I: Weathered Rock
Socket depth in layer I= 3-.3= 2.7m
As=8.482 m2=8.482x106 mm2

qc=15 MPa

Cus= 0.225√qc =0.871

Raf1 =8.482x106x0.871 N

= 7387.82 kN
Rock Layer II: Slightly Weathered/ Fresh Rock
Socket depth in layer II= 3m
As=9.425 m2=9.425x106 mm2

qc=25 MPa

Cus= 0.225√qc =1.125

Raf2 = 1.125x9.425x106 N

= 10603.12 kN

Ultimate Side Socket Resistance

Raf= Raf1 + Raf2

Raf= 7387.82+ 10603.12

=17990.94 kN
Allowable capacity of Pile
Q allow = (Re/3) + (Raf/6)

=(23714.85/3)+(17990.94/6)
=(7904.95)+(2998.49)

As per IRC 78, the allowable end bearing component after applying factor of safety shall
be restricted to 5MPa(5000 kN/m2).

For 1m dia pile, 5MPa is equivalent to 3926.99 kN

Hence,
Q = 3926.99+ 2998.49
allow

=6925.48 kN
LATERAL LOAD CAPACITY OF
PILE FOUNDATION
LATERAL LOAD CAPACITY

• The ultimate resistance of vertical pile to lateral load and deflection of the pile as
the load build up to its ultimate value are complex matter involving the interaction
between a semi rigid structural element and the soil which deforms partly
elastically and partly plastically.
• The first step is to determine, if the pile will behave as short rigid unit or as
infinitely long flexible member. This is done by calculating the stiffness factor R or
T.
EXAMPLE-

Determine the lateral load capacity of a 1.2m dia, 20 m long fixed head pile
foundation. The soil is embedded in dense sand. The pile cap is placed on ground
and scour level is 9m below the ground.
Pile dia= 1.20m
Pile Length= 20m
Grade of Concrete= M35
SPT N value = 32 blows
Free length of the pile, e=9m
Stiffness factor
For pile in sand and normally loaded clays,
Stiffness factor T= (EI/nh)0.2

Where,
E= Young’s modulus of pile material
= 3.2x107 kN/m2

I= Moment of Inertial of pile cross-section

=1.02x10-1 m4

nh=modulus of subgrade reaction

=4568kN/m3 (From IS 2911)

Stiffness factor, T= (EI/nh)0.2

=(3.2x107 x 1.02x10-1/4568)0.2
=3.72m
Determination of length of Fixity(zf)

Length of fixity shall be determined from

the figure.
Click icon to add picture
L1=e=9m

L1/T= 9/3.72
=2.42

zf=Lf= length of fixity

From the figure, for pile in sands and

normally loaded clay and fixed head pile,
Lf/T= 1.91

zf=Lf=1.91x3.72
=7.10m
Considering max. deflection 1% of pile dia.
Max. deflection, y=0.012m

Horizontal pile capacity,

For fixed head condition, For free head condition,

H= (yx12EI/(e+zf) ) 3
H= (yx3EI/(e+zf)3)

As the pile is fixed head,

H= (0.012x12x3.2x107 x 1.02x10-1/(9+7.7.1)3
=112.62kN =11.64 tn
Fixed end Moment Calculation
For fixed head pile, MF=H(e+zf)/2

For free head pile, MF=H(e+zf)

Actual max. moment, M=mxMF

m=reduction factor (from the fig.)

For pile in sand and normally loaded clays,
For L1/T=2.42, m=0.95
Therefore for fixed head pile,
M= 0.95xHx(9+7.10)/2
=7.65xH
Max. moment in pile= 7.65XH
Where H is lateral load in tons
THANK YOU
BOX STRUCTURE WITH PRECAST TOP SLAB
PRECAST BOX CULVERT WITH SPIGOT AND BELL JOINT
VOIDED SLAB
TYPE OF GUIDE BUNDS
Classification of guide bunds:
(i) According to their form in plan
• Divergent guide bunds
• Convergent guide bunds
• Parallel guide bunds
• Elliptical guide bunds

(ii) According to their geometrical shape.

• Straight Guide Bund
• Elliptical Guide Bund
DESIGN OF GUIDE BUNDS
• Depth of scour:

Location Maximum scour depth to be adopted

(Dmax)

Upstream curved mole of guide bund 2dsm

Straight reach of guide bund including tail 1.5dsm

on the downstream of guide bund

Where, dsm is mean depth of scour below HFL.