Digital Logic Design

Chapter 2

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gate

Digital Logic Design

 2.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS
 A set is collection of elements having the same property.
 S: set, x and y: element or event
 For example: S = {1, 2, 3, 4}
» If x = 2, then xS.
» If y = 5, then y S.

 A binary operator defines on a set S of elements is a rule that

assigns, to each pair of elements from S, a unique element from
S.
 For example: given a set S, consider a*b = c and * is a binary operator.
 If (a, b) through * get c and a, b, cS, then * is a binary operator of S.
 On the other hand, if * is not a binary operator of S and a, bS, then c 
S.

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 2.1 Algebras
 What is an algebra?
 Mathematical system consisting of
» Set of elements (example: N = {1,2,3,4,…})
» Set of operators (+, -, ×, ÷)
» Axioms or postulates (associativity, distributivity, closure, identity
elements, etc.)
 Why is it important?
 Defines rules of “calculations”
 Note: operators with two inputs are called binary
 Does not mean they are restricted to binary numbers!
 Operator(s) with one input are called unary

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 BASIC DEFINITIONS
 The common postulates used to formulate algebraic structures are:
1. Closure: a set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if, for every
pair of elements of S, the binary operator specifies a rule for obtaining a
unique element of S.
 For example, natural numbers N={1,2,3,...} is closed w.r.t. the binary
operator + by the rule of arithmetic addition, since, for any a, bN, there is
a unique cN such that
» a+b = c
2. Associative law: a binary operator * on a set S is said to be associative
whenever
 (x * y) * z = x * (y * z) for all x, y, zS
» (x+y)+z = x+(y+z)
3. Commutative law: a binary operator * on a set S is said to be
commutative whenever
 x * y = y * x for all x, yS
» x+y = y+x

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 BASIC DEFINITIONS
4. Identity element: a set S is said to have an identity element with
respect to a binary operation * on S if there exists an element eS
with the property that
 e * x = x * e = x for every xS
» 0+x = x+0 =x for every xI I = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
» 1×x = x×1 =x for every xI I = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
5. Inverse: a set having the identity element e with respect to the
binary operator to have an inverse whenever, for every xS, there
exists an element yS such that
 x*y=e
» The operator + over I, with e = 0, the inverse of an element a is (-a), since a+(-
a) = 0.
6. Distributive law: if (*) and (.) are two binary operators on a set S,
(*) is said to be distributive over (.) whenever
 x * (y.z) = (x * y).(x * z)
Digital5Logic Design
2.3 Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra

 We need to define algebra for binary values

 Developed by George Boole in 1854

 Huntington postulates (1904) for Boolean algebra :

 B = {0, 1} and two binary operations, (+) and (.)
 Closure with respect to operator (+) and operator (.)
 Identity element 0 for operator (+) and 1 for operator (.)

 Commutativity with respect to (+) and (.)

x+y = y+x, x·y = y·x

 Distributivity of (.) over (+), and (+) over (.)

x·(y+z) = (x·y)+(x·z) and x+(y·z) = (x+y)·(x+z)

 Complement for every element x is x’ with x+x’=1, x·x’=0
 There are at least two elements x,yB such that xy
Digital6Logic Design
 Boolean Algebra
 Terminology:
 Literal: A variable or its complement

 Product term: literals connected by (·)

 Sum term: literals connected by (+)

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Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean Algebra
 B = {0, 1} and two binary operations, (+) and (.)
 The rules of operations: AND 、 OR and NOT.
AND OR NOT
x y X.y x y x+y x X’
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

1. Closure (+ and‧)
2. The identity elements
(1) + = 0
(2) · = 1
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Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean Algebra
3. The commutative laws x+y = y+x, x.y = y.x
4. The distributive laws

x． x． x． (x ． y)+
x y z y+z
(y+z) y z (x ． z)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean Algebra

5. Complement
 x+x'=1 → 0+0'=0+1=1; 1+1'=1+0=1
 x ． x'=0 → 0 ． 0'=0 ． 1=0; 1 ． 1'=1 ． 0=0

6. Has two distinct elements 1 and 0, with 0 ≠ 1

 Note
 A set of two elements
 (+) : OR operation; (·) : AND operation
 A complement operator: NOT operation

 Binary logic is a two-valued Boolean algebra

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Basic Theorems

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 Boolean Theorems
 Huntington’s postulates define some rules
Post. 1:
closure
Post. 2:
(a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
Post. 3:
(a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
Post. 4:
(a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
 Need more rules to modify
algebraic expressions
 Theorems that are derived from postulates
 What is a theorem?
 A formula or statement that is derived from postulates (or
other proven theorems)
 Basic theorems of Boolean algebra
 Theorem 1 (a): x + x = x (b): x · x = x
 Looks straightforward, but needs to be proven !

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 Proof of x+x=x
 We can only use Huntington postulates:

Huntington postulates: Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x

Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0

 Show that x+x=x.

x+x = (x+x)·1 by 2(b)
= (x+x)(x+x’) by 5(a)
= x+xx’ by 4(b)
= x+0 by 5(b)
=x by 2(a)

 We can now use Theorem 1(a) in future proofs

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 Proof of x·x=x
Huntington postulates:
 Similar to previous
proof Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
Th. 1: (a) x+x=x

 Show that x·x = x.

x·x = xx+0 by 2(a)
= xx+xx’ by 5(b)
= x(x+x’) by 4(a)
= x·1 by 5(a)
=x by 2(b)

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 Proof of x+1=1
 Theorem 2(a): x + 1 = 1 Huntington postulates:
x + 1 = 1 ． (x + 1) by 2(b)
Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
=(x + x')(x + 1) 5(a) 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b)
Post.
= x + x' 1 x·y=y·x
4(b)
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
= x + x' 2(b)
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
=1 5(a) 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
Post.
 Theorem 2(b): x ． 0 = 0 byTh. 1: (a) x+x=x
duality
 Theorem 3: (x')' = x
 Postulate 5 defines the complement of x, x + x' = 1 and x x' = 0
 The complement of x' is x is also (x')'

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 Absorption Property (Covering)
 Theorem 6(a): x + xy = x Huntington postulates:
 x + xy = x ． 1 + xy by 2(b)
= x (1 + y) 4(a) Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
= x (y + 1) 3(a) Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
=x．1 Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
Th 2(a)
=x 2(b) (b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
Th. 2: (a) x+1=1
 Theorem 6(b): x (x + y) = x by duality
 By means of truth table (another way to proof )

x y xy x+xy
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 16
Digital Logic Design
 DeMorgan’s Theorem
 Theorem 5(a): (x + y)’ = x’y’
 Theorem 5(b): (xy)’ = x’ + y’
 By means of truth table

x y x’ y’ x+y (x+y) x’y’ xy x’+y' (xy)’

’
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

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Digital Logic Design
Example Questions

(A+B)(A+C) = A+BC

(AB’(C+BD)+A’B’)C = B’C

A’B’C’+A’BC+AB’C’+AB’C+ABC = B’B’+AC+BC

Digital Logic Design