Week 2-Physical Chemistry

Ideal Gas Laws

Heat vs temperature
Temperature
• Temperature is a measure of hotness or coldness of an
object. It is also a measure of average kinetic energy(Ek)
of the atoms and molecules of the object.
Heat

• Heat is a process by which energy is transferred to an

object in such a way that the average Ek is increased.
• Cooling is a process by which energy is transferred
from an object in such a way that the average Ek of
molecules is decreased.
A description of matter using
Kinetic Molecular Theory(KMT)
The basic principles of KMT are:
• 1. All matter consist of extremely small particles.
• 2. Intermolecular forces exist between particles. The strength
of these forces is inversely proportional to the distance.
These forces are electrostatic in nature.

• 3. The average Ek of the particles is proportional to their

Temperature. Increasing the Temperature increases Ek.
• The IMFA tend to pull molecules together, whilst their
movement due to their Ek tend to pull them apart.
A description of matter using KMT
• Solids occur at low temperature when the average Ek is not
enough to overcome the IMFAs, which pulls the molecules
together and hold them in a fixed position known as the
crystal.
• Liquids occur at intermediate temperatures. The average Ek
of the molecules is just enough to allow molecules to
overcome the IMFA and fly apart from another.
• Gases occur at high temperature where the average Ek is so
large that it is able to completely overcome the IMFAs and
the molecules are thus able to fly apart.
Specific heat
capacity
• The specific heat capacity (or simply specific heat) is the
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one
gram of a substance by one degree Celsius (or one kelvin) at
constant pressure.
• The formula for specific heat: where q is energy required in
joules, m is mass in grams/Kg and =Tf -Ti is change in
temperature.
• Specific heat capacity in J/goC of water is 4.184, Fe(0.444),
Cu(0.385) and H2(14.26)
Latent heat
• Heat is an important component of phase changes.
• Normally when heat energy is added to or removed from an
object, the temperature of the object changes; however, during
phase changes, the temperature of an object stays constant.
• The temperature remains the same because energy is required
for an object to change phases.
• Latent heat is the heat energy per mass unit required for a
phase change to occur.
• The latent heat of melting (fusion) ΔHfus , is the amount of
energy required to convert 1kg of solid, at its melting point, to
a liquid at the same temperature. ΔHfus is always +ve.
Latent heat
• The latent heat of freezing(crystallization) ΔHcry is amount of
energy released when 1 kg of liquid at its freezing point,
freezes to a solid at the same temperature. ΔHcry is always –
ve.
• Latent heats are often called enthalpies( latent heat of
vaporization is called enthalpy of vaporization)
• Enthalpies and heat capacities are often expressed as per
mole rather than per kilogram.
The ideal gas laws
• At standard temperature and pressure(STP) , T=0.00
o
C and 1 atm or 273.15 K and 101 325 Pa
• At standard ambient temperature and pressure(SATP),
T=25 oC and 1 bar or 298.15 and 100 000 Pa.
Gass pressure units
• 1.00 atm=760 mmHg=760 torr= 101.325 kPa=101 325
Pa
• 1 bar=750 mm Hg=750 torr =100.00 kPa=100 000 Pa
The ideal gas laws
• An ideal gas is one, which obeys the following laws.
• Real gases do not obey these laws exactly but at low
temperature and pressure real gasses behave like ideal gasses.
• 1. Charles Law
• It state that the volume occupied by any sample of gas at a
constant pressure is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature(in K).
• i.e Vα T
• Note: T must be in K, V must be any unit provided that the
same units is used on both sides.
Charles law examples
• Hot air balloon: it float because when air is heated the volume
increases leading to decrease in density.
• Bread: yeast converts sugars in the dough to carbon dioxide gas. When
bread and cakes are baked, this conversion is accelerated. The gas
liberating expands because of high temperatures in the oven
The temperature inside my refrigerator is about 40 Celsius. If I
place a balloon in my fridge that initially has a temperature of
220 C and a volume of 0.5 liters, what will be the volume of the
balloon when it is fully cooled by my refrigerator?

Given: T1= 22 C=295.15 K

0 T2=4 oC=277.15 V1= 0.5L V2=?

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑇 2𝑉 1
= =𝑉 2
𝑇1 𝑇 2 𝑇1

277.15 𝐾 ∗ 0.5 𝐿
295.15 𝐾
=𝑉 2 𝑉 2=0.47 𝐿
A container containing 5.00 L of a gas is collected at 100 K
and then allowed to expand to 20.0 L. What must the new
temperature be in order to maintain the same pressure (as
required by Charles‘ Law)?
Given: T1= 100 K V1= 5.00 L V2=20.0 L T2=?
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉 2𝑇 1
= =𝑇 2
𝑇1 𝑇 2 𝑉1

20.0 𝐿∗100 𝐾
5.00 𝐿
=𝑇 2 𝑇 2=400 𝐾
The ideal gas laws
• 2. Boyles Law
• According to Boyle’s law, the volume of a sample of
gas at a given temperature varies inversely with the
applied pressure.
• That is, Vα 1/P, where V is the volume, P is the
pressure. Thus, if the pressure is doubled, the volume
is halved.
• The equation for Boyles Law is: P1V1=P2V2
• Note: any units can be used for P and V as long as the
same units are used on both sides.
A gas with a volume of 4.0L at a pressure of 205kPa is allowed
to expand to a volume of 12.0L. What is the pressure in the
container if the temperature remains constant?
Given: P1= 205 kPa V1= 4.0 L V2=12.0 L P2=?
𝑃1𝑉 1
𝑃 1𝑉 1=𝑃 2𝑉 2 𝑉2
=𝑃 2

205000 𝑃𝑎 ∗ 4.0 𝐿
=𝑃2
12.0 𝐿
𝑃 2=68333.33 𝑃𝑎=68.33 𝑘𝑃𝑎
A 40.0 L tank of ammonia has a pressure of 12.7 kPa.
Calculate the volume of the ammonia if its pressure is
changed to 8.4 kPa while its temperature remains constant.
Given: P1= 12.7 kPa, V1= 40.0 L, P2= 8.4 kPa, V2=?

𝑃1𝑉 1 12.7 𝑘𝑃𝑎∗ 40.0 𝐿

𝑃 1𝑉 1=𝑃 2𝑉 2 =𝑉 2 =𝑉 2
𝑃2 8.4 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑉 2=60.5 𝐿
The ideal gas laws
• 3. Avogadro’s Law
• The volume of a gas at a fixed temperature is proportional to
the number of moles of a gas present.
• i.e. V α n the equation is :
• A consequence of this law is that 1 mole of any gas occupies
the same volume at a given temperature T and P. The volume
occupied by 1 mole is called molar volume(Vm)
• At STP, the Vm for an ideal gas is 22.4 dm3
• At SATP, the Vm for an ideal gas is 24.8 dm3
 50 g of nitrogen (N2) has a volume of ___ liters at STP.
At STP 1 mole of N2=22.4 L

Given: V1= 22.4L n1=1 mol n2=? V2=?

𝑚
𝑛= =1.78 mol
𝑀𝑟

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉 1 𝑛2
= =𝑉 2
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1
22.4 𝐿∗ 1.78 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1.0 𝑚𝑜𝑙
=𝑉 2 𝑉 2=39.87 𝐿
The ideal gas laws

• 4. Daltons Law
• According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures, the
sum of the partial pressures of all the different gases
in a mixture is equal to the total pressure of the
mixture.
• The partial pressure of a gas is the pressure that the
gas would exert if it alone occupied the container.
• PT=PA+PB+PC+…
Blast furnaces give off many unpleasant and unhealthy gases.
If the total air pressure is 0.99 atm, the partial pressure of
carbon dioxide is 0.05 atm, and the partial pressure of
hydrogen sulfide is 0.02 atm, what is the partial pressure of
the remaining air?
Given: PT= 0.99 atm, Po =0.05 atm, PH2S=0.02 atm Pair=?
PT= Po + PH2S+ Pair
0.99 = 0.05 + 0.02+ Pair
Pair= 0.92 atm
Combined gas Law
• To this point, we have examined the relationships between any two of
the variables of P , V , and T , while the third variable is held
constant.
• However, situations do arise where all three variables change.
• The combined gas law expresses the relationship between
the pressure, volume, and absolute temperature of a fixed
amount of gas.
• For a combined gas law problem, only the amount of gas is held
constant.
𝑃𝑥𝑉 𝑃 1 𝑥𝑉 1 𝑃 2 𝑥𝑉 2
=𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑇 𝑇1 𝑇2
The ideal gas laws
• The ideal gas equation
• If we combine Charles, Avogadro and Boyles Laws we
get the ideal gas equation.
• The ideal gas equation:
𝑃𝑉 =𝑛 𝑅𝑇
• where R is universal gas constant: R=8.314 J.K-1.mol-1
or R=0.0821 L.atm/(K.mol)
 The ideal gas equation
• Key points about ideal gas equation
• 1. units of R has SI value of 8.314 J.K-1.mol-1 , V must be in m3(1
m3=1000dm3), p must be in Pa(1 atm=101325 Pa:1
mmHg=133.33 Pa), T must be in K and n in moles. If V is in L and
P is atm, R=0.0821 L.atm/(K.mol) can be used.
• 2. The equation applies to any type of a gas that behave ideally.
• 3. the equation includes the laws of Boyles, Charles and
Avogadro.
• 4. the rearranged forms of the ideal gas equation often used in
calculations:
𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑉 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑉
𝑉= 𝑇= 𝑃= 𝑛=
𝑃 𝑛𝑅 𝑉 𝑅𝑇
How many grams of oxygen, O2, are there in a 50.0-L gas
cylinder at 21 oC when the oxygen pressure is 15.7 atm?
Given: V=50.0 L T=21 oC=294 K P=15.7 atm, n=? R = 0.0821 L.atm/(K.mol)

𝑃𝑉 ¿ 15.7 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ∗50.0 𝐿

𝑃𝑉 =𝑛 𝑅𝑇 𝑛=
𝑅𝑇 0.0821 𝐿. 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ( 𝐾 . 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ) −1∗ 294 𝐾

¿ 3 2.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙
32 𝑔
𝑚=𝑛 𝑀𝑟 =32.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∗ =1040 𝑔
𝑚𝑜𝑙
What is the density of oxygen, O2, in grams per liter at 25 oC
and 0.850 atm?
Given: T=25 oC=298 K, P=0.850 atm, V= 1.00 L,R = 0.0821
L.atm/(K.mol), n=?
𝑃𝑉 0.850 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ∗1.00 𝐿
𝑛= ¿
𝑅𝑇 0.0821 𝐿. 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ( 𝐾 . 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ) −1∗ 298 𝐾
¿ 0 .035 𝑚𝑜𝑙
32 𝑔
𝑚=𝑛 𝑀𝑟 =0.035 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∗ =1.12 𝑔
𝑚𝑜𝑙
because V=1 L density =1.12g/L
A cylinder of oxygen gas contains 91.3 g O2. If the volume of
the cylinder is 8.58 L, what is the pressure of the O2 if the gas
temperature is 21 oC?
Given: V=8.58 L, T=21 oC=294 K, m=91.38 g, R = 0.0821
L.atm/(K.mol), P=?
𝑚 91.3 𝑔
𝑀𝑟 32.0 𝑔 , 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 ¿ 2.85 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛= ¿

𝑛𝑅𝑇 2.85 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∗0.0821 𝐿. 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ( 𝐾 . 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ) −1 ∗294 𝐾

𝑃= ¿
𝑉 8.58 𝐿
¿ 8.02 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Nitric acid is produced from nitric oxide, NO, which in turn is prepared
from ammonia by the Ostwald process:
4 NH3(g) + 5 O2(g) → 4 NO(g) + 6 H2O(g)
What volume of oxygen at 35oC and 2.15 atm is needed to make 50.0g
of nitric oxide?
Given: P=2.15 atm, T=35 oC=308 K, m(NO)=50.0 g, R = 0.0821 L.atm/(K.mol),
V=? 50.0 𝑔
𝑛 ( 𝑁𝑂 )= =1.67 mol
30 𝑔 . 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 5
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 2=1.67 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑥 =2.09 𝑚𝑜𝑙
4
𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑉=
𝑃
2.09 𝑚𝑜𝑙∗ 0.0821 𝐿. 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ( 𝐾 . 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ) −1 ∗308 𝐾
¿
2.15 𝑎𝑡𝑚
¿ 24.58 𝐿
6.3 mg of a boron hydride is contained in a flask of 385
mL at 25.0° C and a pressure of 11 torr. Determine the
molar mass of boron hydride.
Given: m=6.30 mg, V=385 mL=0.385 L, T=25.0 oC=298 K ,P=11 torr=? atm0.0821
L.atm/(K.mol), n=?
Convert torr into atm and mg into g: 11 torr= 0.0145 atm 6.30mg =0.0063 g

𝑃𝑉 0.0145 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ∗0.385 𝐿

𝑛= ¿ ¿ 0 .000228 𝑚𝑜
𝑅𝑇 0.0821 𝐿. 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ( 𝐾 . 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ) −1∗ 298 𝐾
𝑚 0.0063 g
𝑀𝑚= =
𝑛 0.000228
mol ¿ 27 .6 g /mol
Combined gas Law
• To this point, we have examined the relationships between any two of
the variables of P , V , and T , while the third variable is held
constant.
• However, situations do arise where all three variables change.
• The combined gas law expresses the relationship between
the pressure, volume, and absolute temperature of a fixed
amount of gas.
• For a combined gas law problem, only the amount of gas is held
constant.
𝑃𝑥𝑉 𝑃 1 𝑥𝑉 1 𝑃 2 𝑥𝑉 2
=𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑇 𝑇1 𝑇2
2.00L of a gas at 35oC and 0.833 atm is brought to standard temperature
and pressure (STP). What will be the new gas volume?

Given: V1=2.00L, T1=35oC=308 K, P1=0,0833 atm at STP T2=0oC= 273, P2=1 atm, V2=?

Use the combined gas law and rearrange to solve for V2.

𝑃 1 𝑥 𝑉 1 𝑥𝑇 2
V 2=
𝑇 1𝑃 2

=1.48 L
 A gas has a volume of 800.0 mL at −23.0 °C and 300.0 torr. What would
the volume of the gas be at 227.0 °C and 600.0 torr of pressure?

Given: V1=800 mL, T1=-23oC=250K, P1=300 torr, T2=227oC=500K, P2=600 torr,

V2=?
Use the combined gas law and rearrange to solve for V2.

𝑃 1 𝑥 𝑉 1 𝑥𝑇 2
V 2=
𝑇 1𝑃 2

=0.800L
500.0 liters of a gas in a flexible-walled container are prepared at 700.0
mmHg and 200.0 °C. The gas is placed into a tank under high pressure.
When the tank cools to 20.0 °C, the pressure of the gas is 30.0 atm. What is
the volume of the gas?
Given: V1=500L, T1=200.0oC=473 K, P1=700.0mmHg=700/760=0.921 atm,
T2=20.0oC=293K, P2=30atm, V2=?

𝑃 1 𝑥 𝑉 1 𝑥𝑇 2
V 2=
𝑇 1𝑃 2

=9.51L
KMT of gases
• 1. Gases consist of tiny particles(atoms and molecules) that are
moving with a rapid speed, random, straight-line motion.
• 2. Collision between molecules do not alter their overall energy.
• 3. the volume of particles is negligible compared to the volume of
their container.
• 4. there are no intermolecular forces of attraction
• 5. the average Ek of the gases is proportional to their temperature.
Deviation of real gases from ideal gases
• Real gases deviate from ideal behavior at high pressure and low temperature.
At high pressures
• i) the molecules are very close together and the IMFA become significantly
strong.
• ii) the molecules occupy a significant fraction of volume of the container.
At low temperatures the speed and Ek of the molecules is so small that they
are not able to completely overcome the IMFAs and thus they do not behave
ideally.
• The KMT of gases does not allow for either of these factors and real gases at
high pressure deviate from ideal behavior.
• Most real gases behave ideally at pressures less than 100kPa and at
temperatures about 300K.
General properties of liquids
• 1. Viscosity is the resistance to flow that is exhibited by all liquids and
gases.
• The viscosity of a liquid can be obtained by measuring the time it
takes for a given quantity to flow through a capillary tube. The
stronger the IMFA the, the more viscous the liquid. Viscosity
decreases as the temperature is raised.
• 2. Surface tension is the energy required to increase the surface area
of a liquid by a unit amount. It results from the unbalanced IMFAs
that occur at the surface of the liquid. The stronger the IMFA the
larger the surface tension of the liquid.
General properties of liquids
• 3. Capillary action is the tendency of a liquid to rise or fall in a narrow
spaces such as tubes. Curvature of a liquid surface at the point of
contact with a container is called meniscus and results from capillary
action of the liquid.
• 4. Evaporation is the process by which molecules leaves the surface
of a liquid and enter the vapour phase.
• In order for a molecule to evaporate they must:
• a) be at surface of the liquid
• b) have sufficient Ek to overcome and escape from IMFA that were
holding them in the liquid.
General properties of liquids
• Since only the molecules with higher Ek can evaporate, the average
Ek(and T) of the remaining molecules is less. Thus evaporation causes
liquid to be cooler.
• The rate of evaporation is affected by:
• a) the strength of IMFAs. The molecules of liquids with strong IMFAs
cannot easily escape from the liquid and thus evaporate more slowly
than liquids with weak IMFAs.
• b) the temperature. Increases T will increase the rate of evaporation.
• c) surface area. The large the surface area of a liquid the greater the
rate of evaporation.
General properties of liquids
• 5. Vapour pressure of liquids is the partial pressure of the vapor over
the liquid, measured at equilibrium at a given temperature.
• The vapour pressure depends on:
• a) strength of the IMFAs. The stronger the IMFAs the lower the vapour
pressure.
• b) the temperature. The vapour pressure increases as the
Temperature increases.
General properties of liquids
• 7. Boiling- boiling occurs when molecules in liquid are able to enter to
the vapour by forming bubbles of vapour within the liquid.
• Boiling will occur at a temperature at which the partial pressure of a
liquid is equal to the external pressure on its surface(1 atm).
• Factors affecting the boiling point of a liquid.
• a) IMFAs: liquid with strong IMFAs have low vapour pressure and thus
have high boiling points.
• b) pressure: increasing or decreasing the external pressure changes
the temperature of the boiling point.