Notes on Electrodynamics
One semester course for the first year students of LNM Institute of
Information Technology, Jaipur, India (www.lnmiit.ac.in )
Course : Physics 02
Text Book : Introduction to Electrodynamics:
David J. Griffiths
Year : 2008 – 2009, Second semester
Instructor : Dr Amit Neogi ( [email protected])
(mobile: 9413839224)
Chapter 1:
Vector Analysis
• Vector Algebra
– Addition of two vectors: Head to tail rule
– Multiplication by a scalar
– Dot product of two vectors (scalar)
A.B AB cos A. A A2
– Cross product of two vectors (vector) –direction
determined by right hand rule
A B AB sin nˆ A A 0
Vector Algebra :Component Form
Any arbitrary vector can be expanded in terms of its components- Basis
vectors. (Here i, j, k are the unit vectors along x, y and z direction)
A Ax iˆ Ay ˆj Az kˆ
A.B ( Ax iˆ Ay ˆj Az kˆ).( Bxiˆ By ˆj Bz kˆ)
Ax Bx Ay By Az Bz
A. A Ax2 Ay2 Az2
A Ax2 Ay2 Az2
iˆ iˆ 0 iˆ.iˆ 1 iˆ ˆj kˆ ˆj iˆ
iˆ ˆj kˆ
A B Ax Ay Az iˆ( Ay Bz Az By ) ˆj ( Ax Bz Az Bx ) kˆ(...)
Bx By Bz
Scalar Triple Product
A.( B C ) B.(C A) C.( A B )
Ax Ay Az
A.( B C ) Bx By Bz
Cx Cy Cz
Vector Triple Product
A ( B C ) B ( A.C ) C ( A.B ) ( A B) C C ( A B )
Position Vector
ˆ ˆ
r xiˆ yjˆ zkˆ r xi yj zkˆ
r x2 y 2 z 2
r xiˆ yjˆ zkˆ
r xiˆ yjˆ zkˆ
rˆ
r x y z
2 2 2
Infinitesimal Displacement
Vector
The infinitesimal displacement vector from
(x, y, z) to (x+dx, y+dy, z+dz) is
dl dxiˆ dyjˆ dzkˆ
Or
ˆ ˆ ˆ
dr dxi dyj dzk
Separation Vector
Source Point: Where an electric
charge is located
Field Point: Where Electric or
r r'
Magnetic Field is calculated
'
Separation Vector r r
( note the style of ‘r’ )
A Unit Vector in the direction of separation vector is given by
'
r r ( x x ' )iˆ ( y y ' ) ˆj ( z z ' )kˆ
'
r r ( x x' )2 ( y y ' )2 ( z z ' )2
Differential Calculus
Ordinary Derivatives
Suppose there is a function of one variable f(x)
What does the derivative df/dx tell you ?
df
df dx
dx
Geometrically df/dx is the slope of the graph of f versus x
Gradient
Let’s take a function of three variables T(x, y, z)
Derivative should tell us how fast the function varies with
distance but it depends in three directions : So problem is
not simple
Answer lies in partial derivatives
T T T
dT dx dy dz
x y z
T ˆ T ˆ T ˆ
dT
x
i
y
j
z
ˆ
k . dxiˆ dyjˆ dzk
(T ).(dl )
T ˆ T ˆ T ˆ
T i j k
x y z
Gradient of T : A Vector Quantity
ˆ
i ˆj k
ˆ
x y z
“Del”: A Vector Operator
Geometrical Interpretation of
Gradient
dT (T ).(dl ) T dl cos
where is the angle between T and dl . Now if we fix the magnitude
dl and search around in various directions (that is vary ), the maximum
change in T occurs when 0 (for cos =1). That is for a fixed distance
dl , dT is greatest when I move in the same direction as T .Thus
The gradient T points in the direction of maximum increase
of the function T
The magnitude T gives the slope (rate of increase) along
this maximal direction
T 0 mean dT=0 A stationary point: It could be a maximum
minimum or a point of inflection
Imagine you are standing on a hillside . Look around you,
and find the direction of steepest ascent. That is the
direction of the gradient. Now measure the slope in that
direction (rise over run). That is the magnitude of the
gradient. From the gradient equation the direction of
maximum descent is opposite to the direction of maximum
ascent
Ex#1.3
Find the gradient of r x 2 y 2 z 2 (the magnitude of position vector)
In the above two images, the scalar field
is in black and white, black representing
higher values, and its corresponding
gradient is represented by blue arrows.
The operator
ˆ
i ˆj k
ˆ
x y z
known as “Del” or “Nabla” is not simply a
vector but a vector operator which either acts
on a scalar function or a vector function (mainly
3 ways)
1. On a scalar function T : T (gradient)
2. On a vector function v, via the dot product: .v (divergence)
3. On a vector function v, via the cross product: v (curl)
Divergence
ˆ ˆ ˆ
.v =( i + j+ k ).(vx.iˆ + vy.jˆ + vz.k)
ˆ
x y z
vx vy vz
= + +
x y z
Divergence of a vector function v is itself a scalar.
Geometrical Interpretation
Divergence is a measure of how much the vector spreads out
(diverges) from the point
Different cases of Divergence
(a) Positive Divergence
(b) Zero Divergence
(c) Positive divergence
If the arrows are in all the direction then it is positive divergence.
f the arrows are in same direction of same size then divergence is zero.
f the arrows are in same direction of increasing size then divergence
is positive.
A point of positive divergence is a source or faucet.
A point of negative divergence is a drain.
Curl
iˆ ˆj kˆ
Curl of a vector function is a vector
v
x y z Geometrical Interpretation
v vy vz This measures how much the vector v
x “curls around” the point in question
Non zero curl pointing in z direction
Suppose the function sketched in previous slides is v a yiˆ xjˆ and
ˆ k)
v xjˆ. Calculate their curls . (Ans#2k, ˆ
b
Second Derivatives
1. Divergence of gradient
ˆ ˆ ˆ T ˆ T ˆ T ˆ
.(T ) ( i + j+ k ).( i + j+ k)
x y z x y z
2T 2T 2T
= + + = 2
T
x 2
y 2
z 2
2T Laplacian
2. Curl of a gradient
(T ) = 0
3. Divergence of a curl
.( v ) 0
Integral Calculus
• Line or path Integrals
• Surface integrals
• Volume Integrals
Line Integrals
A line integral is an expression of the form
v.dl
a
v Vector function.
dl = infinitesimal displacement.
The integration is to be carried along a prescribed path P
from point a to point b. At each point on the path we take
the dot product of v (evaluated at that point) with the
displacement dl to the next point on the path)
If the path is a closed loop (that is b=a)
b
v.dl
F .dl = Work done
a
When is F called Conservative ?
Line integral of a function v y 2iˆ 2 x( y 1) ˆj
along the path (1) and (2)
Surface Integrals
v.da
S
V is a vector function and da is an infinitesimal
patch of area with direction perpendicular to
the surface (outward normal)
If the surface is closed
(forming a baloon) then :
v.da
Volume Integrals
V
Td Here T is a scalar function and d is an
infinitesimal volume element
d dxdydz
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
What is the total change in the function
(from a to b) ?
b
df
a dx dx = f(b) - f(a)
The integral of a derivative over an interval is given by the
value of the function at the end points (boundaries)
Fundamental Theorem for
Gradients
Total change in T in going from a to b along the selected path is :
(T ).dl
a
T(b) - T(a)
Fundamental theorem says that the integral (here a line
integral) of a derivative (here the gradient) is given by
the value of the function at the boundaries (a and b)
b
Cor 1
(T ).dl is independent of path taken from a to b
a
Cor 2 (T).dl 0, since the beginning and end points
are identical, and hence T (b) - T ( a) 0
Fundamental Theorem for
Divergence
( .v
vol
)d = v .da
S
Gauss theorem / Green’s theorem/
divergence theorem
(faucets within the volume) (flow out through the surface)
i.e changing volume integral to a surface integral
Fundamental Theorem for Curls
( v ).da v.dl
S P
Strokes’ Theorem
( v ).da depends only on the boundary line, (not on the surface)
S
( v ).da 0 for any closed surface since boundary shrinks to 0
Changing Surface integral to line Integral
Curvilinear Coordinates
• Spherical Polar coordinates
• Cylindrical coordinates
Spherical Polar Coordinates
(r,,)
The spherical polar coordinates
(r,,) of a point P: (imagine a sphere)
r is the distance from the origin,
(the angle down the z axis) and
(the angle around from the x axis)
Polar angle
Their relation to cartesian
coordinates (x, y, z) are as follows
x r sin cos
y r sin sin Azimuthal angle
Any vector A
z r cos A Ar rˆ A ˆ Aˆ
rˆ, ˆ, ˆ are three unit vectors perpendicular to each other
but change with position
Infinitesimal displacement (r,,) and Volume
Along unit vectors
rˆ dlr =dr
ˆ dl rd
ˆ dl r sin d
Total
dl dr rˆ rd ˆ +r sin d ˆ
d dlr dl dl r sin d d dr
2
Infinitesimal Area (r,,)
Over the surface ( r is cont.)
da2 dlr dl ˆ rdrd ˆ
da1 dl dl r r sin d d rˆ
ˆ 2
Surface lies in x y plane ( is constant)
da2 dlr dl ˆ r sin drd ˆ
Volume of a sphere (see the limits)
Vector derivatives in spherical
coordinates
Cylindrical Coordinates (s,,z)
• The cylindrical coordinate system is a three-dimensional
coordinate system which essentially extends circular polar
coordinates by adding a third coordinate ( z) which measures
the height of a point above the plane.(Think of a Cylinder)
has the same meaning as in sherical coordinates, z is the same
as cartesian, s is the distance to P from the z axis.
• The relation with Cartesian coordinate:-
x s cos , y s sin , zz
Range :
dl ds sˆ sd ˆ +dz zˆ s:0
d sdsd dz : 0 2
z :
Vector Derivatives in Cylindrical
Coordinates
One Dimensional Dirac Delta
Function
• The one dimensional Dirac delta function, (x) can be
pictured as an infinitely high, infinitesimally narrow
“Spike,” with area 1
0 if x 0
(x)=
if x 0
and
(x)dx=1
Summary ( Chapter 1)
Vector Algebra Fundamental Theorems Spherical Polar Coordinates (r,,)
b
df
Position Vector
a dx dx = f(b) - f(a) x r sin cos
r xiˆ yjˆ zkˆ b
y r sin sin
Infinitesimal displacement P(T ).dl T(b) - T(a)
a z r cos
dl dxiˆ dyjˆ dzkˆ Divergence Theorem
(.v )d = v.da dl dr rˆ rd ˆ +r sin d ˆ
Del Operator vol S
Strokes Theorem d dlr dl dl r 2 sin d d dr
iˆ ˆj kˆ
x y z
( v ).da v.dl
S P
da1 dl dl rˆ r 2 sin d d rˆ
1. On a scalar function T : T (gradient) Range of =0-, =0-2, r=0-
2. On a vector function v, .v (divergence) Cylindrical Coordinates (s,,z)
3. On a vector function v, v (curl)
Dirac Delta Function x s cos , y s sin , zz
2T Laplacian 0
(x)=
if x 0 dl ds sˆ sd ˆ +dz zˆ
1.
if x 0 d sdsd dz
2. Curl of a gradient and Range :
(T ) = 0 s:0
3. Divergence of a curl
(x)dx=1
: 0 2
z :
.( v ) 0
Summary: Chapter 1
Vector Algebra Fundamental Theorems Spherical Polar Coordinates (r,,)
b
df
Position Vector
a dx dx = f(b) - f(a) x r sin cos
r xiˆ yjˆ zkˆ b
y r sin sin
Infinitesimal displacement P(T ).dl T(b) - T(a)
a z r cos
dl dxiˆ dyjˆ dzkˆ Divergence Theorem
(.v )d = v.da dl dr rˆ rd ˆ +r sin d ˆ
Del Operator vol S
Strokes Theorem d dlr dl dl r 2 sin d d dr
iˆ ˆj kˆ
x y z
1. On a scalar function T : T (gradient)
( v ).da v.dl
S P
da1 dl dl rˆ r 2 sin d d rˆ
Range of =0-, =0-2, r=0-
2. On a vector function v, .v (divergence)
Cylindrical Coordinates (s,,z)
3. On a vector function v, v (curl)
Dirac Delta Function x s cos , y s sin , zz
T Laplacian
2
0
(x)=
if x 0 dl ds sˆ sd ˆ +dz zˆ
1.
if x 0 d sdsd dz
2. Curl of a gradient and Range :
s:0
(T ) = 0
3. Divergence of a curl
(x)dx=1
: 0 2
z :
.( v ) 0
