Network Layer:

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Internet
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Protocol
 INTERN
ETWOR
KING In this section, we discuss internetworking,
connecting networks together to make an
internetwork or an internet.
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Topics discussed in this section:

Need for Network Layer

Internet as a Datagram Network
Internet as a Connectionless Network
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Links between two hosts

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Network layer in an internetwork

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Network layer at the source, router, and destination

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Network layer at the source, router, and destination (continued)

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Switching at the network layer in the Internet
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uses the datagram approach to packet switching.

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Communication at the network layer in the
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Internet is connectionless.

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 IPv4
The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the
delivery mechanism used by the TCP/IP
protocols.
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Communication at the network layer in the
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Internet is connectionless.

Topics discussed in this section:

Datagram
Fragmentation
Checksum
Options
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Position of IPv4 in TCP/IP protocol suite

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IPv4 datagram format

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Service type or differentiated services

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The precedence subfield was part of version 4,
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but never used.

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Types of service

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Default types of service

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Values for codepoints

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The total length field defines the total length of
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the datagram including the header.

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Encapsulation of a small datagram in an Ethernet frame

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Protocol field and encapsulated data

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Protocol values

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An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first 8 bits as
shown:
01000010
The receiver discards the packet. Why?

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Solution
There is an error in this packet. The 4 leftmost bits
(0100) show the version, which is correct. The next 4
bits (0010) show an invalid header length (2 × 4 =
8). The minimum number of bytes in the header
must be 20. The packet has been corrupted in
transmission.
In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is 1000 in
binary. How many bytes of options are being carried
by this packet?

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Solution
The HLEN value is 8, which means the total number
of bytes in the header is 8 × 4, or 32 bytes. The first
20 bytes are the base header, the next 12 bytes are
the options.
In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is 5, and the
value of the total length field is 0x0028. How many
bytes of data are being carried by this packet?

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Solution
The HLEN value is 5, which means the total number
of bytes in the header is 5 × 4, or 20 bytes (no
options). The total length is 40 bytes, which means
the packet is carrying 20 bytes of data (40 − 20).
An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first few
hexadecimal digits as shown.
0x45000028000100000102 . . .
How many hops can this packet travel before being
dropped? The data belong to what upper-layer

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protocol?

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Solution
To find the time-to-live field, we skip 8 bytes. The
time-to-live field is the ninth byte, which is 01. This
means the packet can travel only one hop. The
protocol field is the next byte (02), which means that
the upper-layer protocol is IGMP.
An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first few
hexadecimal digits as shown.
0x45000028000100000102 . . .
How many hops can this packet travel before being
dropped? The data belong to what upper-layer

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protocol?

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Solution
To find the time-to-live field, we skip 8 bytes. The
time-to-live field is the ninth byte, which is 01. This
means the packet Maximum
can transfer unit (MTU)
travel only one hop. The
protocol field is the next byte (02), which means that
the upper-layer protocol is IGMP.

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MTUs for some networks

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Flags used in fragmentation

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Fragmentation example

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Detailed fragmentation example

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A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 0. Is this
the first fragment, the last fragment, or a middle
fragment? Do we know if the packet was
fragmented?

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Solution
If the M bit is 0, it means that there are no more
fragments; the fragment is the last one. However,
we cannot say if the original packet was fragmented
or not. A non-fragmented packet is considered the
last fragment.
A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 1. Is this
the first fragment, the last fragment, or a middle
fragment? Do we know if the packet was
fragmented?

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Solution
If the M bit is 1, it means that there is at least one
more fragment. This fragment can be the first one or
a middle one, but not the last one. We don’t know if
it is the first one or a middle one; we need more
information (the value of the fragmentation offset).
A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 1 and a
fragmentation offset value of 0. Is this the first
fragment, the last fragment, or a middle fragment?

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Solution
Because the M bit is 1, it is either the first fragment
or a middle one. Because the offset value is 0, it is
the first fragment.
A packet has arrived in which the offset value is 100.
What is the number of the first byte? Do we know
the number of the last byte?

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Solution
To find the number of the first byte, we multiply the
offset value by 8. This means that the first byte
number is 800. We cannot determine the number of
the last byte unless we know the length.
A packet has arrived in which the offset value is 100,
the value of HLEN is 5, and the value of the total
length field is 100. What are the numbers of the first
byte and the last byte?

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Solution
The first byte number is 100 × 8 = 800. The total
length is 100 bytes, and the header length is 20
bytes (5 × 4), which means that there are 80 bytes
in this datagram. If the first byte number is 800, the
last byte number must be 879.
A packet has arrived in which the offset value is 100,
the value of HLEN is 5, and the value of the total
length field is 100. What are the numbers of the first
byte and the last byte?

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Solution
The first byte number is 100 × 8 = 800. The total
length is 100 bytes, and the header length is 20
bytes (5 × 4), which means that there are 80 bytes
in this datagram. If the first byte number is 800, the
last byte number must be 879.

Example of checksum calculation in IPv4

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Taxonomy of options in IPv4

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 IPv6
The network layer protocol in the TCP/IP
protocol suite is currently IPv4. Although IPv4 is
well designed, data communication has
evolved since the inception of IPv4 in the
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1970s. IPv4 has some deficiencies that make it

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unsuitable for the fast-growing Internet.
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Topics discussed in this section:

Advantages
Packet Format
Taxonomy of options in IPv4
Extension Headers
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Format of an IPv6 datagram

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Next header codes for IPv6

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Priorities for congestion-controlled traffic

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Priorities for noncongestion-controlled traffic

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Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6 packet headers

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Extension header types

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Comparison between IPv4 options and IPv6 extension headers

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 TRANSITI
ON FROM
Because of the huge number of systems on the
IPv4 TO Internet, the transition from IPv4 to IPv6 cannot
IPv6 happen suddenly. It takes a considerable
amount of time before every system in the
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Internet can move from IPv4 to IPv6. The

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transition must be smooth to prevent any
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problems between IPv4 and IPv6 systems.

Topics discussed in this section:

Dual Stack
Tunneling
Comparison between IPv4 options and IPv6 extension headers
Header Translation
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Three transition strategies

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Dual stack

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Tunneling strategy

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Header translation strategy

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Header translation

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