Machine Design I

Lecture 1
Introduction to Engineering Design
References:-
 A Textbook of Machine Design by R.S.KHURMI AND
J.K.GUPTA
 Shigley’s ,Mechanical Engineering Design - Ninth Edition

Sunday, September 8, 2024

Design
• To design is either to formulate a plan for the satisfaction of a specified need or to solve a
specific problem. If the plan results in the creation of something having a physical reality,
then the product must be functional, safe, reliable, competitive, usable, manufacturable,
and marketable.
• Design is an innovative and highly iterative process. It is also a decision-making process.
Design is a communication-intensive activity in which both words and pictures are used,
and written and oral forms are employed.

Mechanical Engineering Design

• Mechanical engineering design involves all the disciplines of mechanical engineering.
• Design of a simple journal bearing involves fluid flow, heat transfer, friction, energy
transport, material selection, thermomechanical treatments, statistical descriptions, and
so on.
• A building is environmentally controlled. The heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
considerations are sufficiently specialized that some speak of heating, ventilating, and air-
conditioning design as if it is separate and distinct from mechanical engineering design.
Similarly, internal-combustion engine design, turbomachinery design, and jet-engine
design are sometimes considered discrete entities.
• There are phrases such as machine design, machine-element design, machine-component
design, systems design, and fluid-power design. All of these phrases are somewhat more
focused examples of mechanical engineering design.
Design Process

The phases in design

Design of Machine Elements
• Specifying a mechanical system is only the beginning of the design synthesis process.
• Particular machine element classes need to be chosen, possibly leading to further design
iterations.
• Designing a proper machine element usually involves the following steps:
1. Selecting a suitable type of machine element from consideration of its function
2. Estimating the size of the machine element that is likely to be satisfactory
3.Evaluating the machine element’s performance against design requirements
or constraints
4.Modifying the design and dimensions until the performance is near to whichever
optimum is considered most important
Design Considerations

The Design Engineer’s Professional Responsibilities

• Understand the problem.
• Identify the knowns.
• Identify the unknowns and formulate the solution strategy.
• State all assumptions and decisions.
• Analyze the problem
• Evaluate your solution.
• Present your solution
Standards and Codes
• A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes intended to achieve
uniformity, efficiency, and a specified quality. One of the important purposes of a standard
is to limit the multitude of variations that can arise from the arbitrary creation of a part,
material, or process.
• A code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture, and construction of
something. The purpose of a code is to achieve a specified degree of safety, efficiency, and
performance or quality. It is important to observe that safety codes do not imply absolute
safety. In fact, absolute safety is impossible to obtain. Sometimes the unexpected event
really does happen. Designing a building to withstand a 120 mi/h wind does not mean that
the designers think a 140 mi/h wind is impossible; it simply means that they think it is
highly improbable.
• All of the organizations and societies listed next slide have established specifications for
standards and safety or design codes.
Standards and Codes … (cont’d)
• The organizations of interest to mechanical engineers are:
Stress and Strength
• Strength is a property of a material or of a mechanical element. The strength of an
element depends on the choice, the treatment, and the processing of the material.

• We shall use the capital letter S to denote strength, with appropriate subscripts to
denote the type of strength. Thus, Sy is a yield strength, Su an ultimate strength, Ssy a shear
yield strength, and Se an endurance strength.

• Stress is a state property at a specific point within a body, which is a function of load,
geometry, temperature, and manufacturing processing.

• We shall employ the Greek letters σ (sigma) and τ (tau) to designate normal and shear
stresses, respectively. For Example: σ1 is a principal normal stress, σy a normal stress
component in the y direction, and σr a normal stress component in the radial direction.
Uncertainty
Uncertainties in machinery design abound. Examples of uncertainties concerning stress
and strength include:
• Composition of material and the effect of variation on properties.
• Variations in properties from place to place within a bar of stock.
• Effect of processing locally, or nearby, on properties.
• Effect of nearby assemblies such as weldments and shrink fits on stress conditions.
• Effect of thermomechanical treatment on properties.
• Intensity and distribution of loading.
• Validity of mathematical models used to represent reality.
• Intensity of stress concentrations.
• Influence of time on strength and geometry.
• Effect of corrosion.
• Effect of wear.
• Uncertainty as to the length of any list of uncertainties.

There are mathematical methods to address uncertainties. The primary techniques are
the deterministic and stochastic methods. The deterministic method establishes a design
factor based on the absolute uncertainties of a loss-of-function parameter and a
maximum allowable parameter. Here the parameter can be load, stress, deflection, etc.
Thus, the design factor nd is defined as
design factor nd

Example (1)
Design Factor and Factor of Safety
• The actual design factor may change as result of changes such as rounding up to a standard
size for a cross section or using off-the-shelf components with higher ratings instead of
employing what is calculated by using the design factor. The factor is then referred to as the
factor of safety, n. The factor of safety has the same definition as the design factor, but it
generally differs numerically.

Example (2)
Dimensions and Tolerances
Example (3)
Material Strength and Stiffness
• The standard tensile test is used to obtain a variety of material characteristics and strengths
that are used in design. Figure below illustrates a typical tension-test specimen and its
characteristic dimensions. The original diameter d0 and the gauge length L0, used to measure
the deflections, are recorded before the test is begun. The specimen is then mounted in the
test machine and slowly loaded in tension while the load P and deflection are observed.
• The load is converted to stress by the calculation:

• The normal strain:

A typical tension-test specimen. Some of the standard dimensions

used for d0 are 2.5, 6.25, and 12.5 mm and 0.505 in, but other
sections and sizes are in use. Common gauge lengths l0 used are 10,
25, and 50 mm and 1 and 2 in.
Material Strength and Stiffness …(cont’d)

pl: the proportional limit, el: the elastic limit, y: the offset-yield strength as defined by offset
strain a; u: the maximum or ultimate strength and f: the fracture strength.
Stress-strain diagram obtained from the standard
tensile test (a) Ductile material; (b) brittle material.

• In the linear range, the uniaxial stress-strain relation is given by

Hooke’s law as:
Engineering materials and their properties
• The knowledge of materials and their properties is of great significance for a design
engineer. The machine elements should be made of such a material which has properties
suitable for the conditions of operation.

Classification of Engineering Materials

• The engineering materials are mainly classified as:
1. Metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel, copper, aluminum, etc.
2. Non-metals, such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc.
• The metals may be further classified as:
(a) Ferrous metals and (b) Non-ferrous metals.
• The ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as cast
iron, wrought iron and steel.
• The non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main
constituent, such as copper, aluminum, brass, tin, zinc, etc.

Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes

1. Availability of the materials.
2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service.
3. The cost of the materials.
Mechanical Properties of Metals
1. Strength: It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without
breaking or yielding.
2. Stiffness: It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress.
3.Elasticity: It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when
the external forces are removed.
4.Plasticity: It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load
permanently. This property is necessaryfor forgings and stamping images on coins.
5.Ductility: It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic. The ductile
material commonly used in engineering practice (in order of diminishing ductility) are mild
steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.
6.Brittleness: It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of
breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. Brittle materials when subjected to
tensile loads snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Cast iron is a brittle material.
7.Malleability: It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or
hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be
so strong. The malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice (in order of
diminishing malleability) are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium.
Mechanical Properties of Metals …(cont’d)
8.Toughness: It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated.. This property is
desirable in parts subjected to shock and impact loads.
9.Machinability: It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with which a
material can be cut.
10.Resilience: It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and
impact loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within
elastic limit. This property is essential for spring materials.
11.Creep: When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period
of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This property is
considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and turbines.
12.Fatigue: When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the
yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as *fatigue. The failure is
caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are usually fine and of microscopic
size. This property is considered in designing shafts, connecting rods, springs, gears, etc.
13.Hardness: It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of
meanings. It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching,
deformation and machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another metal.
Steel
• It is an alloy of iron and carbon, with carbon content up to a maximum of 1.5%. The carbon
occurs in the form of iron carbide, because of its ability to increase the hardness and
strength of the steel. Other elements e.g. silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and manganese are
also present to greater or lesser amount to impart certain desired properties to it. Most of
the steel produced now-a-days is plain carbon steel or simply carbon steel. A carbon steel is
defined as a steel which has its properties mainly due to its carbon content and does not
contain more than 0.5% of silicon and 1.5% of manganese.
• The plain carbon steels varying from 0.06% carbon to 1.5% carbon are divided into the
following types depending upon the carbon content.

1. Dead mild steel: up to 0.15% carbon

2. Low carbon or mild steel: 0.15% to 0.45% carbon
3. Medium carbon steel: 0.45% to 0.8% carbon
4. High carbon steel: 0.8% to 1.5% carbon
Stress
• When some external system of forces or loads acts on a body, the internal forces (equal
and opposite) are set up at various sections of the body, which resist the external forces.
This internal force per unit area at any section of the body is known as stress. It is denoted
by a Greek letter sigma (σ).

Strain
• When a system of forces or loads act on a body, it undergoes some deformation. This
deformation per unit length is known as strain. It is denoted by a Greek letter epsilon (ε).
Tensile Stress and Strain
• When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pulls P (also called tensile load) as
shown in Fig. (a), then the stress induced at any section of the body is known as tensile
stress.
• As shown in Fig. (b). A little consideration will show that due to the tensile load, there will
be a decrease in cross-sectional area and an increase in length of the body. The ratio of the
increase in length to the original length is known as tensile strain.

Fig. Tensile stress and strain

Young's Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity
Hooke's law states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is directly
proportional to strain, i.e.

where E is a constant of proportionality known as Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity.

In S.I. units, it is usually expressed in GPa i.e. GN/m2 or kN/mm2.

• Values of E for the commonly used engineering materials:

Shear Stress and Strain
• When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting tangentially across the
resisting section, as a result of which the body tends to shear off the section, then the stress
induced is called shear stress.
• The corresponding strain is known as shear strain and it is measured by the angular
deformation accompanying the shear stress. The shear stress and shear strain are denoted
by the Greek letters tau (τ) and phi (φ) respectively.
• Consider a body consisting of two plates connected by rivet as shown in Fig. (a), the
tangential force P tends to shear off the rivet at one cross-section as shown in Fig. (b). It
may be noted that when the tangential force is resisted by one cross-section of the rivet
(or when shearing takes place at one cross-section of the rivet), then the rivets are said to
be in single shear.
• In such a case, the area resisting the shear off the rivet:

Single shearing of a riveted joint

Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity
• It has been found experimentally that within the elastic limit, the shear stress is directly
proportional to shear strain. Mathematically
τφ τ = C.φ or C = τ/φ

Values of C for the commonly used materials:

Linear and Lateral Strain
• Consider a circular bar of diameter d and length l, subjected to a tensile force P as shown
in Fig. (a).
• A little consideration will show that due to tensile force, the length of the bar increases by
an δd, as shown in Fig. (b). Similarly , if the amount δl and the diameter decreases by an
amount bar is subjected to a compressive force, the length of bar will which will be
followed by increase in diameter.
• It is thus obvious, that every direct stress is accompanied by a strain in its own direction
which is known as linear strain and an opposite kind of strain in every direction, at
rightangles to it, is known as lateral strain.

Linear and lateral strain.

Poisson's Ratio
• It has been found experimentally that when a body is stressed within elastic limit, the
lateral strain bears a constant ratio to the linear strain:

Poisson's ratio (ν) = Lateral Strain/Linear Strain

Values of Poisson’s ratio for commonly used materials:

Stresses due to Change in Temperature—Thermal Stresses
• Whenever there is some increase or decrease in the temperature of a body, it causes the
body to expand or contract. A little consideration will show that if the body is allowed to
expand or contract freely, with the rise or fall of the temperature, no stresses are induced in
the body. But, if the deformation of the body is prevented, some stresses are induced in the
body. Such stresses are known as thermal stresses.

• If the ends of the body are fixed to rigid supports, so that its expansion is prevented, then
compressive strain induced in the body:

Thermal stress:
Cartesian Stress Components
• The Cartesian stress components are established by defining
three mutually orthogonal surfaces at a point within the
body. The normals to each surface will establish the x, y, z
Cartesian axes. In general, each surface will have a normal
and shear stress. The shear stress may have components
along two Cartesian axes. Fig. at right shows an infinitesimal
surface area isolation at a point Q within a body.

• The state of stress at a point described Stress components on

by three mutually perpendicular surface normal to x direction.
surfaces is shown in Fig. (a).

• For equilibrium, in most cases, “cross-

shears” are equal:

• A very common state of stress occurs

when the stresses on one surface are
zero. When this occurs the state of
stress is called plane stress. Fig. (b)
(a) General three-dimensional stress.
shows a state of plane stress,
(b) Plane stress with “cross-shears” equal.
Principal stresses
• plane-stress transformation equations:

• Differentiating above equations with respect to φ and setting the results equal to zero
maximize σ and τ :

Principal stresses:

The two extreme-value shear stresses:

Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending

• The bending stress varies linearly with the distance from the neutral axis, y:

• The maximum magnitude of the bending stress will occur where y has the greatest
magnitude. Designating σmax as the maximum magnitude of the bending stress, and c as
the maximum magnitude of y:

• Equation can written as:

Torsional Shear Stress for Circular Cross Sections

• The angle of twist, in radians, for a solid round

bar is:

• Shear stresses develop throughout the cross section are proportional to the radius ρ:

• For a solid round section: • For a hollow round section:

Torsional Shear Stress for Noncircular Cross Sections
• For noncircular cross sections, the shear stress does not vary linearly with the distance from
the axis, and depends on the specific cross section.
• The maximum shearing stress in a rectangular b × c section bar occurs in the middle of the
longest side b and is of the magnitude:

where b is the width (longer side) and c is the thickness (shorter side). They can not be interchanged.
The parameter α is a factor that is a function of the ratio b/c as shown in the following table.

• The angle of twist is given by:

where β is a function of b/c, as shown in the following table.

Power and Torque
• It is often necessary to obtain the torque T from a consideration of the power and speed
of a rotating shaft
• For U. S. Customary units:

• For SI units:

• The torque T corresponding to the power in watts is given approximately by:

Example (4)
Example (4) … (cont’d)
Example (4) … (cont’d)
Stress Concentration
• In the development of the basic stress equations for tension, compression, bending, and
torsion, it was assumed that no geometric irregularities occurred in the member under
consideration.
• It is quite difficult to design a machine without permitting some changes in the cross
sections of the members.
- Rotating shafts must have shoulders designed on them so that the bearings can be
properly seated and so that they will take thrust loads; and the shafts must have key slots
machined into them for securing pulleys and gears.
- A bolt has a head on one end and screw threads on the other end, both of which
account for abrupt changes in the cross section.
- Other parts require holes, oil grooves, and notches of various kinds.
• Any discontinuity in a machine part alters the stress distribution in the neighborhood of the
discontinuity. Such discontinuities are called stress raisers, and the regions in which they
occur are called areas of stress concentration.
• A theoretical, or geometric, stress-concentration factor Kt or Kts is used to relate the actual
maximum stress at the discontinuity to the nominal stress. The factors are defined by the
equations:

where Kt is used for normal stresses and Kts for shear stresses.
• The stress-concentration factor depends for its value only on the geometry of the part. That
is, the particular material used has no effect on the value of Kt. This is why it is called a
theoretical stress-concentration factor.
Charts of Some Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors:
Example (5)
Example (5) … (cont’d)
Example (5) … (cont’d)