Metal Casting Processes

Chapter 11- Part 2

Manufacturing Processes
(© Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing; Materials, Processes and Systems,
by M. P. Groover)

1
The Basic Permanent Mold Process
Uses a metal mold constructed of two
sections designed for easy, precise
opening and closing

• Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are

commonly made of steel or cast iron
• Molds used for casting steel must be made of refractory
material, due to the very high pouring temperatures

2
 Permanent Mold Casting
• Figure 11.10 Steps in
permanent mold casting:
(1) mold is preheated
and coated

Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting: (2) cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed,
(3) molten metal is poured into the mold, where it solidifies.

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 Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages of permanent mold casting:
– Good dimensional control and surface finish
– More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal
mold results in a finer grain structure, so castings are
stronger
• Limitations:
– Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
– Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mold
– High cost of mold

4
 Applications of Permanent Mold Casting

• Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high

volume production and can be automated accordingly
• Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and
certain castings for aircraft and missiles
• Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper‑base alloys, and cast iron

5
 Slush Casting
• Slush Casting is a special type of permanent mold casting,
where the molten metal is not allowed to completely
solidify. After the desired wall thickness is obtained, the
not yet solidified molten metal is poured out. This is useful
for making hollow ornamental objects such as
candlesticks, lamps, statues etc.

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 Slush Casting
• Low-melting-point metals such as lead, zinc,
and tin are used.
• The exterior appearance is important, but the
strength and interior geometry of the casting
are minor considerations.

7
 Low Pressure Casting
• Instead of using gravity to assist in the metal pour and flow in the
mold, a low pressure of up to 0.1 MPa (15 psi) gas is applied to the
molten metal.

This maintenance of
pressure on the melt
causes complete fill of
the mold and
compensates for any
shrinkage on cooling.

Thin wall castings can

be made.

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Low Pressure Casting (Just for your info)
• Mechanical properties are superior.

• Since no riser is used (unlike a regular casting), the

yield is generally higher since the metal in the
pressurized feed tube is still molten and the mold is
ready for the next shot right away.

• Molten metal is always cleaner

• Gas porosity and oxidation defects are minimized.

9
 Vacuum Permanent Mold Casting
• Similar to the low-pressure permanent mold casting, where a
vacuum is used instead of a pressure.
• Reduced air pressure from the vacuum in the mold is used to
draw the liquid metal into the cavity (rather than forcing it by
pressure)
• Thin wall castings can be made as in the low-pressure
permanent mold casting. In addition, the yields are high since
no risers are used.
• Advantages: Reduced air porosity, greater strength.

10
 Die Casting
• A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is
injected into mold cavity under high pressure
• Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is
opened and part is removed
• Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the
name die casting
• Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is what
distinguishes this from other permanent mold processes

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Die Casting

12
 Die Casting Machines
• Designed to hold and accurately close two
mold halves and keep them closed while
liquid metal is forced into cavity
• Two main types:
1. Hot‑chamber machine
2. Cold‑chamber machine

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 Hot-Chamber Die Casting
• Metal is melted in a container, and a piston
injects liquid metal under high pressure
into the die
• High production rates - 500 parts per hour not uncommon

• Applications limited to low melting‑point

metals that do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
• Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and
magnesium
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 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

• Figure 11.13 Cycle in hot‑chamber casting: (1) with die closed and plunger
withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber

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 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

• Figure 11.13 Cycle in hot‑chamber casting: (2) plunger forces metal in

chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification.

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 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting
Machine
• Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from
external melting container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure into die cavity
• High production but not usually as fast as hot‑chamber
machines because of pouring step
• Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys
• Advantages of hot‑chamber process favor its use on low
melting‑point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

17
 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting

• Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold‑chamber casting: (1) with die closed and
ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the chamber

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 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting

• Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold‑chamber casting: (2) ram forces metal to flow
into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification.

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 Molds for Die Casting
• Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, etc
• Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used to
die cast steel and cast iron
• Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it opens
• Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent sticking

20
 Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages of die casting:
– Economical for large production quantities
– Good accuracy and surface finish
– Thin sections are possible
– Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good
strength to casting
• Disadvantages:
– Generally limited to metals with low metal points
– Part geometry must allow removal from die

21
 Centrifugal Casting
• A family of casting processes in which the
mold is rotated at high speed so centrifugal
force distributes molten metal to outer
regions of die cavity
• The group and some examples:
– True centrifugal casting => Cast iron pipes, tubes, bushings,
rings.
– Semicentrifugal casting => Pulleys and wheels
– Centrifuge casting => Parts with non-radial symmetry

22
 TRUE CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

• Centrifugal casting, sometimes called rotocasting, is a metal casting

process that uses centrifugal force to form cylindrical parts. This differs
from most metal casting processes, which use gravity or pressure to fill the
mold. In centrifugal casting, a permanent mold made from steel, cast iron,
or graphite is typically used. However, the use of expendable sand molds
is also possible. The casting process is usually performed on a horizontal
centrifugal casting machine (vertical machines are also available).

• Basically, this casting technique is employed when axis symmetrical

objects with uniform diameter are to be produced. Core is not employed
in these castings

• Step by step process is covered in coming slides

23
 STEP BY STEP PROCESS TRUE CENTIFUGAL CASTING

• MOLD PREPARATION - The walls of a cylindrical mold are first coated with
a refractory ceramic coating, which involves a few steps (application,
rotation, drying, and baking). Once prepared and secured, the mold is
rotated about its axis at high speeds (300-3000 RPM), typically around
1000 RPM.

• POURING - Molten metal is poured directly into the rotating mold,

without the use of runners or a gating system. The centrifugal force drives
the material towards the mold walls as the mold fills.

• COOLING - With all of the molten metal in the mold, the mold remains
spinning as the metal cools. Cooling begins quickly at the mold walls and
proceeds inwards.

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 Contd…

• CASTING REMOVAL - After the casting has cooled and solidified, the
rotation is stopped and the casting can be removed.

• FINISHING - While the centrifugal force drives the dense metal to the
mold walls, any less dense impurities or bubbles flow to the inner surface
of the casting. As a result, secondary processes such as machining,
grinding, or sand-blasting, are required to clean and smooth the inner
diameter of the part

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PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION TRUE CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

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27
28
29
 True Centrifugal Casting
• Figure 11.15 Setup for true centrifugal casting.

• G Factor should be between 60-80 for successful operation

• For vertical centrifugal casting :
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 Semi-Centrifugal Casting
• Figure 11.16 Setup for semi-centrifugal casting.

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 SEMI CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
• Semi centrifugal casting manufacture is a variation of true centrifugal
casting. The main difference is that in semi centrifugal casting the mold is
filled completely with molten metal, which is supplied to the casting
through a central sprue/gating system and use of central core
• low spinning speeds can be used speeds ranging between 180 to 200 RPM
is recommended. These castings are normally prepared in vertical
machines. The mold cavity is arranged with in the mold so that its central
axis is vertical and concentric with the axis of rotation. Gating system is
employed in the casting for having a directional solidification.
• Castings manufactured by this process will possess rotational symmetry
e.g. wheels. Much of the details of the manufacturing process of semi
centrifugal casting are the same as those of true centrifugal casting
• Step by step process is discusses on next slides

32
In semi centrifugal casting manufacture a permanent mold may be employed.
However often industrial manufacturing processes will utilize an expendable sand

mold. This enables the casting of parts from high temperature material

33
The molten material for the metal casting is poured into a pouring basin and is distributed
through a central sprue to the areas of the mold. The forces generated by the rotation of

the mold ensure the distribution of molten material to all regions of the casting

34
As the casting solidifies in a rotating mold, the centripetal forces constantly push
material out from the central sprue/riser. This material acts to fill vacancies as they

form thus avoiding shrinkage areas

35
The high forces in the outer section that push the molten material against the mold wall also ensure a great surface finish
of cast parts manufactured by semi centrifugal casting. Another feature of this process, attributed to the usage of
centripetal forces, is that impurities within the metal, (such as solid inclusions and trapped air), will form towards the

inner regions of the casting. This particular detail is also a feature in other types of centrifugal casting manufacture

36
 In industrial manufacture of parts by semi centrifugal casting it is common to
machine out the impurity filled center section, leaving only the purer, denser outer

region as the final cast part.

37
 CENTRIFUGING CASTING
• Centrifuging is used for forcing metal from a central axis of the equipment
into individual mold cavities that are placed on the circumference. This
provides a means of increasing the filling pressure within each mold and
allows for reproduction of intricate details. This method is often used for
the pouring of investment casting pattern.

• The process is used for smaller parts and radial symmetry of the part is
not the requirement as in case of other two centrifugal casting

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 Centrifuge Casting
• Figure 11.17 Centrifuge casting.

39
 Furnaces for Casting Processes
• Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:
– Cupolas
– Direct fuel‑fired furnaces
– Crucible furnaces
– Electric‑arc furnaces
– Induction furnaces

40
 Cupolas
• Vertical cylindrical
furnace equipped
with tapping spout
near base
• Used only for cast
irons

41
Cupolas

42
 Direct Fuel‑Fired Furnaces
• Small open‑hearth in
which charge is
heated by natural gas
fuel burners located
on side of furnace
• Generally used for
nonferrous metals
such as copper‑base
alloys and aluminum
43
 Crucible Furnaces
• Metal is melted without direct
contact with burning fuel mixture
• Sometimes called indirect
fuel‑fired furnaces
• Container (crucible) is made of
refractory material or
high‑temperature steel alloy
• Used for nonferrous metals such
as bronze, brass, and alloys of zinc
and aluminum

44
 Electric‑Arc Furnaces
• Charge is melted by heat generated from an
electric arc
• High power consumption, but electric‑arc
furnaces can be designed for high melting
capacity
• Used primarily for melting steel

45
Figure 6.9 Electric arc furnace for steelmaking

46
 Induction Furnaces
• Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop
magnetic field in metal
• Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are common
applications in foundry work

47
 Ladles
Last slide of students’ presentations

• Moving molten metal from melting furnace to mold is

sometimes done using crucibles
• More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles

Figure 11.21 Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b) two ‑man ladle.

48
 Casting Quality
• There are numerous opportunities for
things to go wrong in a casting
operation, resulting in quality defects in
the product

• The defects can be classified as follows:

– General defects common to all casting processes
– Defects related to sand casting process

49
 General Defects: Misrun

• A casting that has solidified before completely

filling mold cavity

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

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 General Defects: Cold Shut

• Two portions of metal flow together but there

is a lack of fusion due to premature freezing

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

51
 General Defects: Cold Shot

• Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules

form and become entrapped in casting

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

52
 General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity

• Depression in surface or internal void caused by

solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
molten metal available in last region to freeze

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

53
 Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow

• Balloon‑shaped gas cavity caused by

release of mold gases during pouring

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

54
 Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes

• Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly

below surface of casting

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

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 Sand Casting Defects: Penetration

• When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate into

sand mold or core, causing casting surface to consist of a
mixture of sand grains and metal

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

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 Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift

• A step in cast product at parting line caused by

sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

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Other defects

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 Metals for Casting
• Most commercial castings are made of alloys
rather than pure metals
– Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties of
product are better

• Casting alloys can be classified as:

– Ferrous
– Nonferrous

59
 Molten Facts
How
Barely Hot Hot Very Hot Too Hot
to?

Temp Below 1000F 1000F-1500F 1500F-2250F 2250F or Higher

Brass,
Tin, Lead, Aluminum Bronze, Gold,
Metal Iron, Steel
Zinc (786F) 1220 F Silver or
Copper

These alloys can Electric Induction

be melted on the Aluminum can furnaces are used
stove in a soup be melted in a for large
can. coffee can on A gas or electric commercial
Tools Caution: Most low- the BBQ, use crucible furnace foundries.
melting alloys are propane, wood is typical. Cupola furnaces
TOXIC, vent well or charcoal for use coke (refined
and use a fuel. coal) for smaller
respirator. batches.

Thick shirt and

Safety Gloves and pants. "Going into a
Safety Glasses
needs Glasses Glasses and volcano" suit !
gloves.
Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron
• Most important of all casting alloys
• Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of all
other metals combined
• Several types: gray cast iron, white cast iron, etc
• Typical pouring temperatures  1400C (2500F),
depending on composition

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 Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel
• The mechanical properties of steel make it an attractive engineering
material
• The capability to create complex geometries makes casting an attractive
shaping process
• Difficulties when casting steel:
– Pouring temperature of steel is higher than for most other
casting metals  1650C (3000F)
– At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so molten metal
must be isolated from air
– Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity

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Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum

• Generally considered to be very castable

• Pouring temperatures low due to low melting temperature of aluminum

– Tm = 660C (1220F)
• Properties:
– Light weight
– Range of strength properties by heat treatment
– Easy to machine

63
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Copper Alloys

• Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze

Copper + Zinc = Brass
Copper + Tin + other elements= Bronze
• Properties: Brass,
Bronze?

– Corrosion resistance
– Attractive appearance
– Good bearing qualities
• Limitation: high cost of copper
• Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller blades, pump components,
ornamental jewelry

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 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Zinc Alloys

• Highly castable, commonly used in die casting

• Low melting point – melting point of zinc Tm = 419C (786F)

• Good fluidity for ease of casting

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