Lecture 1
Lecture 1
Coordinator /Lecturer:
Dr. Subarmaniam Kannan
Group CN1
Lecture 1
1
McGraw-Hill © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Coursework Marks
Assessment Percentage
Project (Final
40%
Assessment)
Quiz 10%
1.2
Learning Objectives COURSE Domain
LEARNING Level
OUTCOMES
LO1
Discuss basic networking concepts including
network layers, network devices and network Affective 2
topologies
LO2
Explain the operation of the TCP/IP networks,
including network protocols and routing Cognitive 5
algorithms
LO3
Describe various networking technologies
including Local Area Networks (LANs) and Cognitive 5
Wide Area Networks (WANs)
LO4
Construct basic network topologies for LANs
and WANs Psychomotor 4
1.3
References
James F Kurose, (2017). Computer Networking, A
top-down approach featuring internet, 7th Edition,
Prentice Hall. ISBN-13: 978-0133594140
Behrouz Forouzan, (2012). Data Communications
and Networking, 5th Edition. McGraw-Hill
Tanenbaum, Andrew S., (2010). Computer
Networks, 5th Ed., New Jersey, Prentice Hall.
ISBN: 0-13-038488-7.
Dougles E. Comer, (2015) Computer Networks
and Internets, 6th Edition, Prentice.
1.4
Lecture 1
Chapter 18
Introduction to
Network Layer
.
Outline
1.9
Interaction between layers in the OSI
Model
10
OSI model and TCP/IP Model
Comput
er
Networ Routing
ks and
Switchin
Data g
Communica
tion LAN, WAN – Updated
TCP/IP High Speed
1.11 Networks
1-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
13
1-5 ADDRESSING
16
18-1 NETWORK-LAYER SERVICES
1.17
Figure 18.1: Communication at the network layer
1.18
18.1.1 Packetizing
1.19
1.20
Other duties of the network layer, which are as important as
the first, are routing and forwarding, which are directly related
to each other.
1.21
Intermediary devices that connect the networks are called
routers. The role of the router is to select paths for and direct
packets toward their destination. This process is known as
routing.
1.22
Classifying Routing
Protocols Dynamic Routing
Protocols
23
Routing Process and Routing Table
172.16.1.0/24 192.168.1.0/30 192.168.2.0/30 172.16.2.0/24
.1 .1 .2 .2 .1 .1
S0/0/0 S0/0/0 S0/0/1 S0/0/1
G0/0 R1 R2 R3 G0/0
Routing
My 30 seconds are up. update:
I’m sending an update 172.16.0.0
to my RIP neighbor(s).
24
Forwarding Send the packet
value out of interface 2
B Data B Data
1.25
18.1.3 Other Services
1.26
18-1 NETWORK-LAYER SERVICES
1.27
18-2 PACKET SWITCHING
1.28
Types of Switching
Message
Packet switching
Circuit switching
switching is a network
involves
involves switching
setting
splitting up atechnique
information series in
of
into data
which data
intermediate
packets, is nodes,
routed in
transmitted its entirety
order
separatelyto by from
propagatethe source node
the sending
intermediate nodes
to
and the
node's destination
data to thewhen
reassembled node,
theyone
receiving node.
reach hope at aarecipient.
In such
the final time. During
situation, the
message
communicationrouting,lineevery
can intermediate
be likened toswitch in the
a dedicated
network stores the
communication whole message.
pipe.
Switching
1.30
Q4 List four types of delays in a packet-switched
network.
Four types: transmission delay,
propagation delay, processing delay,
and queuing delay. (pg. 522).
18.3.3 Packet Loss
1.32
1.33
18.3.4 Congestion Control
1.34
Figure 18.13. Packet delay and throughput as
functions of load
• When the load is below the capacity of the network, the throughput increases proportionally with
the load.
• We expect the throughput to remain constant after the load reaches the capacity, but instead the
• The reason is the dis- carding of packets by the routers. When the load exceeds the capacity, the
queue become full and the routers have to discard some packets.
• Discarding packets does not reduce the number of packets in the network because the sources
retransmit the packets, using time-out mechanisms, when the packets do not reach the
destinations.
• When the load is much less than the capacity of the network, the delay is at a
minimum.
• This minimum delay is composed of propagation delay and processing delay, both
• However, when the load reaches the network capacity, the delay increases sharply
because we now need to add the queuing delay to the total delay.
1.35 • Note that the delay becomes infinite when the load is greater than the capacity.
Congestion Control
1.36
(prevention) (removal).
1.37
Open-loop congestion control (prevention)
Retransmission Policy
If the sender feels that a sent packet is lost or corrupted, the packet needs to be
Window Policy The type of window at the sender may also affect congestion.
The Selective Repeat window is better than the Go-Back-N window for
congestion control. In the Go-Back-N window, when the timer for a packet times
out, several packets may be resent, although some may have arrived safe and
sound at the receiver. This duplication may make the congestion worse. The
Selective Repeat window, on the other hand, tries to send the specific packets
A good discarding policy by the routers may prevent congestion and at the
same time may not harm the integrity of the transmission. For example, in
1.41
Closed-loop congestion control (removal)
Techniques
upstream node or nodes. This may cause the upstream node or nodes to
become congested, and they, in turn, reject data from their upstream
control that starts with a node and propagates, in the opposite direction
Choke packets are used for congestion and flow control over a
network. The source node is addressed directly by the router,
forcing it to decrease its sending rate .The source node
acknowledges this by reducing the sending rate by some
percentage.
nodes and the source. The source guesses that there is congestion somewhere in
the network from other symptoms. For example, when a source sends several
packets and there is no acknowledgment for a while, one assumption is that the
Explicit Signaling The node that experiences congestion can explicitly send a
packet is used for this purpose; in the explicit-signaling method, the signal is
1.44included in the packets that carry data (Piggybacking). Explicit signaling can
18-4 IPv4 ADDRESSES
1.47
Figure 18.17: Hierarchy in addressing
1.48
18.4.2 Classful Addressing
1.50
18.4.3 Classless Addressing
With the growth of the Internet, it was clear that a larger
address space was needed as a long-term solution.
1.51
Subnetting and Supernetting
toInsome extent,aimplemented:
subnetting, subnetting
class A or class and
B block or supernetting.
class C block is divided
into several subnets. Each subnet has a larger prefix length than
1.52
While subnetting was devised to divide a large block into smaller ones,
Supernetting was devised to combine several class C blocks into a larger
block.
A supernetwork, or supernet, is an Internet Protocol (IP) network that is
formed from the combination of two or more networks (or subnets) with a
common Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) prefix. The new routing
prefix for the combined network aggregates the prefixes of the constituent
network.
1.53
Figure 18.24: Example of address aggregation
Supernetting
1.54
Four Subnetting Steps
59
# Subnet Mask Host Range Broadcast
1 185.75.0.0 255.255.255.128 185.75.0.1 to 185.75.0.126 185.75.0.127
2 185.75.0.128 255.255.255.128 185.75.0.129 to 185.75.0.254 185.75.0.255
3 185.75.1.0 255.255.255.128 185.75.1.1 to 185.75.1.126 185.75.1.127
4 185.75.1.128 255.255.255.128 185.75.1.129 to 185.75.1.254 185.75.1.255
5 185.75.2.0 255.255.255.128 185.75.2.1 to 185.75.2.126 185.75.2.127
6 185.75.2.128 255.255.255.128 185.75.2.129 to 185.75.2.254 185.75.2.255
7 185.75.3.0 255.255.255.128 185.75.3.1 to 185.75.3.126 185.75.3.127
8 185.75.3.128 255.255.255.128 185.75.3.129 to 185.75.3.254 185.75.3.255
9 185.75.4.0 255.255.255.128 185.75.4.1 to 185.75.4.126 185.75.4.127
10 185.75.4.128 255.255.255.128 185.75.4.129 to 185.75.4.254 185.75.4.255
11 185.75.5.0 255.255.255.128 185.75.5.1 to 185.75.5.126 185.75.5.127
12 185.75.5.128 255.255.255.128 185.75.5.129 to 185.75.5.254 185.75.5.255
13 185.75.6.0 255.255.255.128 185.75.6.1 to 185.75.6.126 185.75.6.127
14 185.75.6.128 255.255.255.128 185.75.6.129 to 185.75.6.254 185.75.6.255
15 185.75.7.0 255.255.255.128 185.75.7.1 to 185.75.7.126 185.75.7.127
16 185.75.7.128 255.255.255.128 185.75.7.129 to 185.75.7.254 185.75.7.255
17 185.75.8.0 255.255.255.128 185.75.8.1 to 185.75.8.126 185.75.8.127
18 185.75.8.128 255.255.255.128 185.75.8.129 to 185.75.8.254 185.75.8.255
19 185.75.9.0 255.255.255.128 185.75.9.1 to 185.75.9.126 185.75.9.127
20 185.75.9.128 255.255.255.128 185.75.9.129 to 185.75.9.254 185.75.9.255
60
Subnet Mask Host Range Broadcast
193.16.2.0 255.255.255.224
193.16.2.1 to 193.16.2.30 193.16.2.31
193.16.2.32 255.255.255.224
193.16.2.33 to 193.16.2.62 193.16.2.63
193.16.2.64 255.255.255.224
193.16.2.65 to 193.16.2.94 193.16.2.95
193.16.2.96 255.255.255.224
193.16.2.97 to 193.16.2.126 193.16.2.127
193.16.2.128 255.255.255.224
193.16.2.129 to 193.16.2.158 193.16.2.159
193.16.2.160 255.255.255.224
193.16.2.161 to 193.16.2.190 193.16.2.191
193.16.2.192 255.255.255.224
193.16.2.193 to 193.16.2.222 193.16.2.223
193.16.2.224 255.255.255.224
193.16.2.225 to 193.16.2.254 193.16.2.255
61
CIDR Notation
A Different Way to Represent a Subnet
Mask
borrowed 3 bits!!
– Finally, you know the magic number is 256 -
Class A 255.0.0.0
Class B 255.255.0.0
Class C 255.255.255.0
If you are using any other mask other than /8, /16, and /24 ,then
it is called Classless IP addressing.
So far, every subnet was the same size and all accommodated the
same number of hosts.
If all the subnets have the same requirements for the number of
hosts, these fixed size address blocks would be efficient.
However, that’s rarely the case.
75
Same Size Subnets = Wasted Addresses
To meet the host requirement of the largest LAN we could borrow 3
bits (/27) to create 8 subnets of 30 hosts each.
But it also wastes addresses on the point-to-point links and limits
future growth by reducing the total number of subnets available.
Solution:
“Subnet a subnet” using Variable Length Subnet Mask
(VLSM).
76
Before VLSM
77
With VLSM
With VLSM the subnet mask will vary depending on how many bits
have been borrowed for a particular subnet, thus the “variable” part
of the VLSM.
78
With VLSM
79
Variable-Length Subnet Masks (VLSM)
80
Variable-Length Subnet Masks (VLSM)
81
VLSM Example
The four LANs in our previous example can be accommodated
using a /27 subnet mask.
.192 - 223
Building D: 192.168.20.96 /27
.64 - 95
.160 - 191
Building C
192.168.20.64/27
This leaves four /27 subnets. .128 - 159 .96 - .127
Building D
192.168.20.96/27
82
VLSM Example
The WAN interfaces of the routers are assigned the IP addresses
and mask for the /30 subnets (2 hosts).
Building C
This leaves 3 /27 and five /30 subnets. 192.168.20.64/27
Building D
192.168.20.96/27
83