Chapter

Five
Local and Wide Area
Networks
Topics to be discussed
 5.1 .LAN topologies (bus, ring, star)
 5.2. LAN technologies (Ethernet, token Ring,
Gigabit Ethernet)
 5.3 .Large networks and wide areas
Chapter Objectives
 To briefly discuss the technology of dominant
wired LANs, Ethernet, including traditional,
fast, gigabit, and ten-gigabit Ethernet.
 To identify topologies of LAN technologies
such as bus star and ring
 To differentiate LAN technologies like
Ethernet, token Ring, Gigabit Ethernet
 To understand WANS and their technologies
 Local and wide area networks
 A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that is
designed for a limited geographic area such as a
building or a campus.
 Although a LAN can be used as an isolated network to
connect computers in an organization for the sole
purpose of sharing resources, most LANs today are also
linked to a wide area network (WAN) or the Internet.
 A LAN can range from simple (two computers connected
by a cable) to complex (hundreds of connected
computers and peripherals throughout a major
corporation).
 The LAN market has seen several technologies such as
Ethernet, token ring, token bus, FDDI, and ATM LAN.
Some of these technologies survived for a while, but
Ethernet is by far the dominant technology.
 LAN topologies (bus, ring,
 star)
The term topology, or more specifically, network
topology, refers to the arrangement or physical
layout of computers, cables, and other
components on the network. "Topology" is the
standard term that most network professionals
use when they refer to the network's basic
design.
 Four basic topologies that are used to construct
LANs;
Bus Topology
 A network that uses a bus topology usually consists of a
single cable to which computers attached. Any
computer attached to a bus can send a signal down the
cable, and all computers receive the signal.
 Because all computers attached directly to the cable,
any computer can send data to any other computer.
 Of course, the computers attached to a bus network
must coordinate to ensure that only one computer
sends a signal at any time
 Computers on a bus topology network communicate by
addressing data to a particular computer and sending
out that data on the cable as electronic signals.
 To understand how computers communicate on a
bus, you need to be familiar with three concepts:
 Sending the signal
 Signal bounce
 Terminator

Sending the signal

 When sending a signal from one computer on the
network to another, data in the form of electronic
signals is in fact sent to all the computers on the
network.
 However, only the computer whose address
matches the address encoded in the original signal
accepts the information. All other computers
reject the data.
 Because only one computer at a time can send
data on a bus network, the number of computers
attached to the bus will affect network
 Computers on a bus either transmit data to other
computers on the network or listen for data from other
computers on the network.
 They are not responsible for moving data from one
computer to the next. Consequently, if one computer fails,
it does not affect the rest of the network.
Signal bounce
 Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire
network, it travels from one end of the cable to the other.
If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will
keep bouncing back and forth along the cable and prevent
other computers from sending signals. Therefore, the
signal must be stopped after it has had a chance to reach
the proper destination address.
Terminator
 To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a
terminator is placed at each end of the cable to absorb
free signals. Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that
other computers can send data.
Network Expansion
As the physical size of the site grows, the network will
need to grow as well. Cable in the bus topology can be
extended by one of the two following methods:
 A component called a barrel connector can connect
two pieces of cable together to make a longer piece of
cable.
 However, connectors weaken the signal and should be
used sparingly.
 One continuous cable is preferable to connecting
several smaller ones with connectors. Using too many
connectors can prevent the signal from being correctly
received.
 A device called a repeater can be used to connect two
cables.
 A repeater actually boosts the signal before it sends the
signal on its way.
 A repeater is better than a connector or a longer piece
 Star topology
 In the star topology, cable segments from
each computer are connected to a centralised
component called a hub.
 Signals are transmitted from the sending
computer through the hub to all computers on
the network.
 Because each computer is connected to a central
point, this topology requires a great deal of cable
in a large network installation.
 Also, if the central point fails, the entire network
goes down.
 If one computer - or the cable that connects it to
the hub - fails on a star network, only the failed
computer will not be able to send or receive
network data. The rest of the network continues
to function normally.
 It has become very popular in contrast to the bus
type, because of the cost and the ease of
troubleshooting.
 .
Ring Topology
 A network that uses a ring topology arranges for
computers to be connected in a closed loop — a
cable connects the first computer to a second
computer, another cable
 connects the second computer to a third, and so on,
until a cable connects the final computer back to the
first.
 The signals travel around the loop in one direction
and pass through each computer, which acts as a
repeater to boost the signal and send it to the next
computer.
 On a larger scale, multiple LANs can be connected to
each other in a ring topology by using Thicknet
coaxial or Fiber-optic cable
 Some technologies that use a ring topology require a
computer to connect to a small device that forms the
ring.
The advantage of using a separate device lies in the
ability of the ring to continue operation even if some
of the computers are disconnected.
The name ring arises because one can imagine the
computers and the cables connecting them
arranged in a circle .
Instead, they run along hallways or rise vertically
from one floor of a building to another.
Token Passing
 One method of transmitting data around a ring is
called token passing. (A token is a special series of
bits that travels around a token-ring network. Each
network has only one token.)
 The token is passed from computer to computer
until it gets to a computer that has data to send.
 The sending computer modifies the token, puts an
electronic address on the data, and sends it around
the ring.
 The data passes by each computer until it finds the
one with an address that matches the address on
the data.
 The receiving computer returns a message to the
sending computer indicating that the data has been
received.
 After verification, the sending computer creates
a new token and releases it on the network. The
token circulates within the ring until a workstation
 5.2. LAN technologies (Ethernet,
token Ring, Gigabit Ethernet
Ethernet
UNDERSTANDING NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

Access Methods
 The set of rules that defines how a computer puts
data onto the network cable and takes data from the
cable is called an access method.
 Once data is moving on the network, access methods
help to regulate the flow of network traffic.
 Access methods need to be consistent in the way they
handle data. If different computers were to use
different access methods, the network would fail
because some methods would dominate the cable.
 Access methods prevent computers from gaining
simultaneous access to the cable.
 By making sure that only one computer at a
time can put data on the network cable, access
methods ensure that the sending and receiving
of network data is an orderly process.
Major Access Methods
 The four methods designed to prevent
simultaneous use of the network media include:
 Carrier-sense multiple access methods with
collision detection
 Carrier-sense multiple access methods with
collision avoidance
 Token-passing methods that allow only a single
opportunity to send data.
 Demand-priority methods.
 Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD) Access Method
 Using the method known as carrier-sense multiple
access with collision detection (CSMA/CD), each
computer on the network, including clients and
servers, checks the cable for network traffic.
 Only when a computer "senses" that the cable is
free and that there is no traffic on the cable can it
send data.
 Once the computer has transmitted data on the
cable, no other computer can transmit data until
the original data has reached its destination and
the cable is free again.
 Remember, if two or more computers happen to
send data at exactly the same time, there will be a
data collision.
 When that happens, the two computers involved
stop transmitting for a random period of time and
 Each computer determines its own waiting
period; this reduces the chance that the
computers will once again transmit
simultaneously.
 With these points in mind, the name of the access
method—carrier-sense multiple access with
collision detection (CSMA/CD)—makes sense.
 Computers listen to or "sense" the cable (carrier-
sense). Commonly, many computers on the
network attempt to transmit data (multiple
access); each one first listens to detect any
possible collisions.
 If a computer detects a possible collision, it waits
for a random period of time before retransmitting
(collision detection).
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Access
 Carrier-sense multiple access with collision
avoidance (CSMA/CA) is the least popular of the
major access methods.
 In CSMA/CA, each computer signals its intent to
transmit before it actually transmits data.
 In this way, computers sense when a collision
might occur; this allows them to avoid
transmission collisions.
 Unfortunately, broadcasting the intent to transmit
data increases the amount of traffic on the cable
and slows down network performance
Token-Passing Access Method
 In the access method known as token passing, a
special type of packet, called a token, circulates
around a cable ring from computer to computer.
 When any computer on the ring needs to send
data across the network, it must wait for a free
token.
 When a free token is detected, the computer will
take control of it if the computer has data to
send.
 The computer can then transmit data. Data is
transmitted in frames, and additional information,
such as addressing, is attached to the frame in
the form of headers and trailers.

Figure Token-passing access method

Demand Priority Access Method
 In a demand-priority network, there is communication
only between the sending computer, the hub, and the
destination computer.
 This is more efficient than CSMA/CD, which broadcasts
transmissions to the entire network.
 In demand priority, each hub knows only about the end
nodes and repeaters directly connected to it, whereas in
a CSMA/CD environment, each hub knows the address of
every node in the network.
Demand priority offers several advantages over
CSMA/CD including:
 The use of four pairs of wires. By using four pairs of wires,
computers can transmit and receive at the same time.
 Transmissions through the hub. Transmissions are not
broadcast to all the other computers on the network. The
computers do not contend on their own for access to the
cable, but operate under the centralized control of the
hub.
LAN Technology Options

Ethernet
Fast Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet
10 Gig Ethernet
Ethernet:- a system for connecting a number of computer
systems to form a local area network, with protocols to control the
passing of information and to avoid simultaneous transmission by two
or more systems.
 is the network technology invented to connect network device
together.
 It was developed by Robert Metcalfe at Xerox Company in 1976
 Eventually became an IEEE standard (IEEE 802.3)
 Has been modified for wireless applications (IEEE 802.11)
 And for higher speeds (IEEE 802.3ae for 10 Gigabit Ethernet)
 Ethernet is based on the Datagram and functions at the physical and
data link layer
 Ethernet Datagram Structure

6 bytes 46 to 1500
8 bytes Source bytes
Preamble Address Data

4 bytes
6 bytes 2 bytes Frame
Destination Type Field Check
Address Sequence
 Ethernet Datagram Structure
 Preamble: Repeating Flag that ID’s the sequence
as an Ethernet datagram
 Destination Address: Unique identifier found
nowhere else but on the Network Interface Card to
whom the datagram is being sent
 Source Address: Who originated the datagram
 Type Field: Tells the recipient what kind of
datagram is being received (IP, UDP, etc)
 Data: What it is that you are trying to send (text,
JEPG, MP3, etc)
 Frame Check Sequence: Detects and corrects
errors
Frame Format
 The packet sent in an Ethernet LAN is called a frame.
 The Ethernet frame contains seven fields: preamble, SFD,
DA, SA, length or type of data unit, upper-layer data, and
the CRC.
 Ethernet does not provide any mechanism for acknowledging
received frames, making it what is known as an unreliable
medium.
 Acknowledgments must be implemented at the higher layers.
Preamble. The first field of the 802.3 frame contains 7 bytes (56 bits) of
alternating 0s and 1s that alerts the receiving system to the coming frame
and enables it to synchronize its input timing.
 The pattern provides only an alert and a timing pulse.
 The preamble is actually added at the physical layer and is not
(formally)part of the frame.
Start frame delimiter (SFD).
 The second field (1 byte: 10101011) signals the beginning of the
frame.
 The SFD warns the station or stations that this is the last chance for
synchronization.
 The last 2 bits are 11 and alert the receiver that the next field is the
destination address.
 The SFD is also added at the physical layer.
Destination address (DA).
 The DA field is 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the destination
station or stations to receive the packet.
Source address (SA).
 The SA field is also 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the sender of
the packet.
Length or type.
 This field is defined as a type field or length field.
 The original Ethernet used this field as the type field to define the upper-layer
protocol using the MAC frame.
 The IEEE standard used it as the length field to define the number of
bytes in the data field. Both uses are common today (IP, UDP, etc).
Data. This field carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols.
 It is a minimum of 46 and a maximum of 1500 bytes.
 What is it that you are trying to send (text, JEPG, MP3, etc)
CRC. The last field contains error detection information, in
this case a CRC-32bit.
Ethernet Tidbits
 If a message has less than 46 bytes of data,
“padding” is added
 Ethernet is often referred to as 100 Base T
 First digit is the speed of the system in Mbps
 Base refers to a cable or wire system
 T refers to the system is UTP: Unshielded Twisted Pair
 10 Base 5 stands for 10 Mbps on a cable that can go
500 m (multiply the last number by 100 meters)
 10 Base 2 stands for 10 Mbps for 2 hundred meters
 10 Base 5 and 10 Base 2 identifies Ethernet LANs
using thick net and thin net coax cables, respectively
 Standard Ethernet
10 Base 5 (Thicknet) (Bus Topology)
10 Base 2 (Thinnet) (Bus Topology)
10 Base T (UTP) (Star/Tree Topology)
10 Base FL (Fiber) (Star/Tree Topology)
 Ethernet
Physical Media :-
10 Base5 - Thick Co-axial Cable with Bus Topology
10 Base2 - Thin Co-axial Cable with Bus Topology
10 BaseT - UTP Cat 3/5 with Tree Topology
10 BaseFL - Multimode/Singlemode Fiber with Tree
Topology
Maximum Segment Length
10 Base5 - 500 m with at most 4 repeaters (Use Bridge to extend
the network)
10 Base2 - 185 m with at most 4 repeaters (Use Bridge to extend
the network)
10 BaseT - 100 m with at most 4 hubs (Use Switch to extend the
network)
 Fast Ethernet
100 Mbps bandwidth
Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol and
packet format as in Ethernet.
100BaseTX (UTP) and 100BaseFX (Fiber) standards
Physical media :-
100 BaseTX - UTP Cat 5e
100 BaseFX - Multimode / Singlemode Fiber
Full Duplex/Half Duplex operations.
 Fast Ethernet
Provision for Auto-Negotiation of media speed:
10 Mbps or 100Mbps (popularly available for copper media
only).
Maximum Segment Length
100 Base TX - 100 m
100 Base FX - 2 Km (Multimode Fiber)
100 Base FX - 20 km (Singlemode Fiber)
Gigabit Ethernet
1 Gbps bandwidth.
Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol as in
Ethernet and is backward compatible (10/100/100
modules are available).
1000BaseT (UTP), 1000BaseSX (Multimode Fiber) and
1000BaseLX (Multimode/Singlemode Fiber) standards.
Maximum Segment Length
1000 Base T - 100m (Cat 5e/6)
1000 Base SX - 275 m (Multimode Fiber)
1000 Base LX - 512 m (Multimode Fiber)
1000 Base LX - 20 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
1000 Base LH - 80 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
10 Gig Ethernet

10 Gbps bandwidth.
Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol as in
Ethernet.
Maximum Segment Length
10GBase-T - Not available
10GBase-LR - 10 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
10GBase-ER - 40 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
Token Rings
 A token ring network consists of a set of nodes connected in a
ring
 Data always flows in a particular direction around the ring,
with each node receiving frames from its upstream neighbor
and then forwarding them to its downstream neighbor.
 the ring is viewed as a single shared medium; it does not
behave as a collection of independent point-to-point links that
just happen to be configured in a loop.
 token, which is sequence of bits, circulates around the ring;
each node receives and then forwards the token.
 When a node that has a frame to transmit sees the token, it
takes the token off the ring (i.e., it does not forward the special
bit pattern) and instead inserts its frame into the ring.
 Wide Area networks
 WAN is a network that connects two or more
geographically distinct LANs.
WAN technologies generally function at the
lower three layers of the OSI reference model:
the physical layer, the data link layer, and the
network layer.
 Similarities to LANs
Interconnect computers.
Use some form of media for the
interconnection.
Support network applications.
 Differences to LANs
Include both data networks, such as the
Internet, and voice networks, like telephone
systems.
Interconnect more workstations, so that any
 A node is a device that allows one or more
stations to access the physical network and is a
transfer point for passing information through a
network. A node is often a computer, a router, or a
telephone switch.
Types of WAN Network
 A switched network consists of a series of
interlinked nodes, called switches. Switches are
devices capable of creating temporary
connections between two or more devices linked
to the switch. In a switched network, some of
these nodes are connected to the end systems
(computers or telephones, for example). Others
are used only for routing.
A network categorized by the way it transfers
information from one node to another as
Circuit switched network
1. Circuit switched network - a network in
which a dedicated circuit is established
between sender and receiver and all data
passes over this circuit. The connection is
dedicated until one party or another
terminates the connection. The telephone
system is a common example.
2. Packet switched network - a network in
which all data messages are transmitted
using fixed-sized packages, called packets
(datagram and virtual-switched network).
 Packet-switched networks can further be
divided into two subcategories-virtual-
circuit networks and datagram
networks
 A virtual-circuit network is a cross between
a circuit-switched network and a datagram
network. It has some characteristics of both.
 WAN Hardware Devices

 Router - An electronic device that connects

a local area network (LAN) to a wide area
network (WAN) and handles the task of
routing messages between the two networks.
Operates at layer 3, and makes decisions
using IP addresses.
 Switch (layer 3 switch) - A switch is a
network device that selects a path or circuit
for sending a unit of data to its next
destination. Operates at layer 2 (and 3), and
uses MAC addresses/IP Addresses to send
data to correct destination. (LAN switches are
not this type)
 Modem - Short for modulator/demodulator, a
modem enables a computer to communicate
with other computers over telephone lines.
Operates at layer 1, where signals are
WAN Technology Options
 Dial-up
 Leased Line
 ISDN or analog dial up
 DSL- Digital Subscriber Line
 X.25 technology
 Frame relay and virtual circuit
 ATM Technology
 Cable Modem
 Microwave Point-to-Point Link
 VSAT - Very small aperture terminal- A small satellite terminal used for
digital communications, from 1 to 3 meters (3.3 to 10 feet) in diameter,
capable of managing digital transmissions of up to 56Kbps. Satellites
that can handle T1 data rates of up to 1.544Mbps
Dial-up
 Uses POTS (Plain Old Telephone System)
 Provides a low cost need based access.
 Bandwidth 33.6 /56 Kbps.
 On the Customer End: Modem is connected to a
Telephone Line
 Achievable bandwidth depends on the line quality.
 Analog, full duplex, dial tone, subscriber dials
 2 wires for communication (Tip and Ring)
Dial-up
Dial-up
 X.25
 X.25 is an analog, packet-switched technology
designed for long-distance data transmission and
standardized by the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) in the mid-1970s.
 The original standard for X.25 specified a
maximum of 64-Kbps throughput,
 The X.25 standard specifies protocols at the
Physical, Data Link, and Network layers of the OSI
model.
 It provides excellent flow control and ensures data
reliability over long distances by verifying the
transmission at every node
Frame Relay
 Frame Relay, was designed to accept and
deliver blocks of data, where each block
can contain up to 8 octets of data.
 The name is derived from the fact that
data is separated into frames, which are
then relayed from one node to another
without any verification or processing.
 operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI
model and can support multiple different
Network and Transport layer protocols.
 Frame Relay running at speeds between 4
and 100 Mbps (the speed of LANs when
Frame Relay was created).
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode ) Technology

ATM technology is capable of transferring voice, video,

and data simultaneously through private and public
networks.
It is built on a cell-based architecture.
ATM cells are always a fixed length of 53 bytes.
 5 byte ATM header.
 48 bytes of ATM payload.
 The ATM cell is less efficient than the bigger frames and
packets of Frame Relay and X.25.
 Needs almost 20 percent greater bandwidth than Frame
Relay to carry the same amount of data.
ISDN (Integrated Service Digital
Network)
 Another alternative to using analog telephones lines
to establish a connection is ISDN.
 It is a set of communications standards for
simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video,
data, and other network services over the traditional
circuits of the public switched telephone network.
 Speed is one advantage ISDN has over telephone
line connections.
 ISDN network is a switched digital network
consisting of ISDN Switches.
 ISDN user accesses network through a set of
standard interfaces provided by ISDN User
Interfaces.
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