Research in

Nursing
Shraban
Lecturer
Stratified random sampling
Stratified random sampling –
Divided into different homogeneous
subgroup or strata (age, gender,
religion, education, etc ) and then
randomly selected the final subject
proportionally from different strata.
Systematic random sampling
 Systematic random sampling – sampling
linked to an arithmetic progression between
two consecutive number sin the same.

 For example- a researcher wants to choose about

100 subjects from a total target population of 500
people. Therefore, 500/100 = 5. So every 5th
person will be selected. A list of subject is
prepared for target population (sampling frame).
And them first subject is randomly selected, later
Kth subject is selected from the sampling frame.
Advantages
 Sample is easy to select
 Sample is evenly spread over the entire reference
population
 Sample is possible also in situations where frame is not
possible to be constructed for example in case of
hospital outdoor clinic. In this situation we find a
suitable sampling interval and select patients/people
accordingly.
Disadvantage:
 Selection is done in stages until the final sampling
units, e.g. households or persons, are arrived at.
 At the first stage, a list of large-sized sampling is
prepared.
 These may be towns or village or schools.
 A sample of these is selected at random with
probability of selection proportional to size.
 The procedure may contain 3 or more stages.
Cluster sampling or Multistage
sampling

 Cluster sampling means random selecting of

sampling unit consisting of population elements.
Then form of each sampling unit, a sample of
population elements is drawn by either simple
random selection or stratified random sampling.
 Geographical units are most commonly used in
research. For example , a researcher requiring to
survey the academic performance of TMMC
Nursing college Gazipur students.
Cluster sampling or Multistage
sampling
 He/She can divided the entire Gazipur population
into different clusters (e.g. Cities, village)
 The researcher then selects a number of clusters
 Then the researcher can either include all the
nursing college student as subjects or he /she can
chose a number of students form each cluster
through simple or systematic random sampling
from the selected clusters.
Multistage sampling.
 In very large and diverse populations sampling may be
done in two or more stages. This is often the case in
community-based studies, in which people to be
interviewed are from different villages, and the
villages have to be chosen from different areas.

 For example, in a study of utilization of pit latrines in a

district, 150 homesteads are to be visited for
interviews with family members as well as for
observations on types and cleanliness of latrines. The
district is composed of six wards and each ward has
between six and nine villages.
Non-probability
sampling
Convenience
sampling
Quota sampling
Purposive sampling
Snowball sampling
 Convenience sampling
There are three types of non probability sampling as follows:
1. Convenience Sampling:
 It is done according to the researcher’s assumption from

the population.
 For Example:
 Suppose if you want to do a study among the adult village

people’s nursing care attitude who attended in the Thana

Health Complex. Therefore, researcher should decide to
interview all adult patients who attend to the Thana
Health Complex for receiving Nursing Care.
 Quota (allocation) sampling
 Quota sampling is an non-probability sampling
technique wherein the researcher ensures
equal or proportionate representation of
subjects, depending on which trait is considered
as the basis of quota. The bases of quota are
usually age, gender, education, race, religion
and socio-economic status.
 For example- if the basis of the quota is college
level and the researcher needs equal
representation, with a sample size of 100, he or
she must select 25 first year student, another
25 second year students, 25 third year
students, and 25 fourth year students.
Purposive sampling
 It also known as “Judgmental” or authoritative sampling.
In this sampling technique, samples are chosen by
choice not by change, through a judgment made by the
researcher based on his or her knowledge about the
population. Researcher might decide purposely to select
subjects who are judged or believed to be typical of the
accessible population.
 For example- a researcher wants to study the live
experiences of post disaster depression among people
living in flood affected areas of Khulna. In this case, a
purposive sampling techniques is used to select the
subject who were the victims of the flood disaster and
have suffered post-disaster depression living in flood
affected areas of Khulna. For this study, the researcher
selected only those people who fulfil the criteria as well
as particular subjects that are the typical and
representative part of population as per the knowledge
of the researcher.
 Snowball sampling
 Snowball sampling is a non probability sampling
technique that is used by researcher to identify
subjects in studies where subjects are hard to
locate, such as commercial sex workers, drug
abuse, etc.
 For example- a researcher wants to conduct a
study on the prevalence of HIV/AIDs among
commercial sex worker. In this situation,
snowball sampling is the best chose for such
studies to select a sample.
B. Nonprobability (Nonrandom) Sampling Methods - in this sampling, not
every element of the population has an opportunity for selection in the sample.
Non probability designs are as follows
 Convenience (Accidental) Sampling - it is considered a poor approach to
sampling because it provides little opportunity to control for biases.
 Quota Sampling - it uses a convenience sampling technique with an added
feature, a strategy to ensure the inclusion of subject types that are likely to
be under represented in the convenience sample, such as women, minority
groups, the aged, the poor, the rich. and the under educated. The goal of
quota sampling is to replicate the proportions of subgroups present in the
population.
 Purposive Sampling - it sometimes refers to as judgmental sampling. It
involves the conscious selection by the researcher of certain subjects or
elements to include in the study.
 Network Sampling - it sometimes referred to as snowballing. holds
promise for locating samples difficult or impossible to obtain in other
ways. It takes advantage of social networks and the fact that friends tend to
hold characteristics in common.
•SAMPLE SIZE - the number of person or sampling units
selected from the population of the study comprise the
sample size.
•Determination of sample size:
•Sample size is determined by performing power analyses
for each group in the sample for which comparative data
analysis will be performed, The following three estimates
are necessary to determine
Sample size estimation
The following formula was used to calculate the
sample size:
 Where, n= desired sample size; z = 1.96 (95%
confidence interval)
p = Population proportion (Considering 50% people
were infected), and
q = 1-p; d = precision level (5%), and adjusting
10.0% non-response.
Data collection
•Data collection is the process of acquiring the subjects and collecting the data
for the study.
•The actual steps of collecting the data are specific to each study and depend on
the research design and measurement techniques.
•During the data collection period, the researcher focuses on obtaining subjects,
training data collectors, collecting data in a consistent way, maintaining
research controls, protecting the integrity (validity) of the study, and solving
problems that threaten to disrupt the study.
Data collection procedures:
1. Recruiting subjects
 Identify strategies used to approach subjects
 Identify number and characteristics of subjects
 Ask for permission and establish informed consent as specified in the
proposal
 Inform all collection procedures/tasks
•2. Maintaining consistency
 Maintain data collection pattern
 Any minor deviation must be recorded
 In situation where research assistant(RA) is needed, an RA must be
trained to ensure consistency of the collected data
•3. Maintaining control
 Control extraneous variables as strictly as possible and as planned
 Look for previously unidentified extraneous
 variables and take this into account in the data analysis procedure
•4. Protecting study integrity
 Ensure tasks 2 and 3 result in study integrity
 Review the process as a whole and try to lessen any biases that
may contribute to the findings
5. Solving problems
 Solve any encountered problems promptly in a
scientific, logical manner
 Take notes and report in the final paper
•What is a research instrument
•The proper document on which data is collected is known
as research instrument. A research instrument can be
designed in any of the following manners. Each of these
has its own appropriate use:
 A checklist
 A questionnaire
•Each type of research instrument has merits and
limitations and is appropriate for different situations.
 Data collection
Data:
 The data may be defined as the raw materials of statistics consists of numbers or
observations usually obtained by some process of counting and measurement.
Types:

According to status:
 Existing data- Previously written by one
 Originally data- Collect directly from the respondent
According to collect
 Primary data- First time collection / Direct Collection
 Secondary data-Second time collection / Indirect
According to sources:
 Primary- (Conducting Survey & Conducting Experiments)
 Secondary – (Using Published records, consensus, journal, reports)
TYPES OF DATA-
There are two types of data,
viz., primary data and
secondary data
Primary data-
 The data collected for the first time by the
investigator from the units or individuals
directly as original data known as primary data.
For example:
 An inquiry is made from each tax payer in a city
to obtain their opinion about tax collecting
machinery.
 The data obtained in a census study are termed
as primary data.
 If an experiment is conducted to know the effect
of fertiliser on the yield of rice in the field.
 If an experiment is conducted to know the effect
of certain drug on the patients constitute the
primary data.
Secondary data-
 The data, which had been collected by
certain people or agency and statistically
treated. The information contained in it, if
used again to extract some information for
other purpose is termed as secondary
data. For instance, if the data given in
different census years is again processed
to obtain.
 Trends of population growth;
 Professional changes;
 Changes in sex ratio;
 Mortality rate;

 Secondary data is obtained from-
 year books,
 census reports,
 survey reports,
 official records or
 reported experimental findings
 Different organisation and government agencies
publish information (data) in the form of:
 Reports,
 Periodicals,
 Journals
 Data collection –

 Data collection means gathering

information to address those critical
research question that have been
identified earlier in the research
process. Data collection refer to the
specific toll that are used in a given
methods
Methods of data collection
–
 Observation method
 Direct personal interview method
 Indirect personal interview method
 Telephone interview method
 Questionnaire method
 Schedule method
Prior data collections need to consider ethical issues:
Definition of Ethic:
 Ethic is the part of philosophy that deals with the rightness or wrongness of
human behaviour. Ethics need both for the researcher and for the
participants/subjects to protect from harm.
The major ethical issues are needed to be considered as bellows:
Informed Consent:
 Informed consent is the process of providing an individual an individual

with sufficient understandable information regarding his / her

participation in a research project. It is the major ethical issues in
conducting research.
Beneficence:
 Beneficence means “to do good” and positively help a person. Research

should benefit clients / participants as a whole.

Non-beneficence:
 “To do no harm” while the potential physical harm may be

obvious, the psychological effects may not be as transparent.

Autonomy:
 The researcher should maintain principle of autonomy by ensuring

the participants has right to choose where or not to participate in a

research study and withdraw at any time with no consequences.
Confidentiality:
 It refers to the researcher’s responsibility to protect all data

gathered within the scope of the project from being disclosed to

others.
Fidelity (faith):
 It is concerned mainly with the building of trust between

researcher and participant. Research subjects entrust themselves to

the researcher, who has the obligation to safe guard them and their
welfare in the research situation.
Anonymity:
 Anonymity refers to the act of keeping individuals nameless

in relation to their participation in a research project.



Justice:
 The researchers are obliged to treat participants fairly and

equitably before, during and after the research study. Samples

are selected random to avoid the bias and unfairness.
Veracity:
 Veracity involves the concepts of truth about the research

study and the absence of deception. Explain the truth and

research finding should be present honestly without
distortion.
Research design
 Define research design.21,20,19,18,15
 Write down the name of different types
of research design.19,18,15
 Mention the types of qualitative
research design. 20,
 What are the factors affecting selection
of research design. 21,18
 Explain the types of quantitative
research design.17
 Sample & Sampling Technique
 What is sample.18
 what is sampling? Discuss the types of
probability sampling with examples. 19,18,16
 List the different types of sampling
technique.21,18,16
Data collection method
 What do you mean by data & data
collection? write down the method of
data collection-20,18,16
 Mention the techniques of data
collection method. 21,
 Explain the probability sampling
techniques of data collection with
example.20