Chapter - 4

Oscillators

By Berihu G.
([email protected])

School of Electrical and Computer

Engineering
MU_EiT-M_SECE_Electronics and Communication Eng’g Chair
Overview
· Introduction to Oscillators
· Barkhausen Criterion
· Classification of oscillators
1. RC Oscillators
 RC phase shift oscillators
Wein Bridge Oscillators
2. LC Oscillators
 Hartley Oscillators
 Colpitts Oscillators
 Clapp Oscillators
3. Crystal Oscillators

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 Introduction to Oscillators
 Devices that works based on positive feedback.
 An oscillator is a circuit acting as a generator, generating the output
signal oscillating with constant amplitude and desired frequency. It
does not require any input signal.
 In short, an oscillator is an amplifier that uses positive feedback and
generates an output waveform at a desired frequency without any
external input signal.
 Generally, any oscillator circuit consists of
 An Amplifier circuit
 A positive feedback circuit
 Frequency determining components

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 Introduction to Oscillators
 Three requirements for an oscillation to sustain are:
 Positive feedback
 Barkhausen criterion (loop gain βA=1)
 An initial input trigger to start oscillations
The concept of positive feedback

No phase change is introduced by the feedback network β.

Hence, is inphase with

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 Introduction to Oscillators … Cont’d
Expression for gain with +ve feedback (Voltage Amplifier):
 Open loop gain: , gain with feedback:
 For the above +ve feedback amplifier, ………………. (1)
 the feedback voltage is, ………………(2)
 Substituting equation (2) in (1);
substituting this for Af and dividing by Vi;
,
 Thus, without an input, the output starts to oscillate whose frequency depends up
on the feedback network or the amplifier or both. Such a circuit is called an
oscillator.
 Note that, the feedback is a friction of the output, so β < 1, thus the feedback
network is an attenuation network.
 To start with the oscillation, Aβ>1.
 But the network adjusts itself to A β=1, while working as an oscillator.

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Overview
· Introduction to Oscillators
· Barkhausen Criterion
· Classification of oscillators
1. RC Oscillators
 RC phase shift oscillators
Wein Bridge Oscillators
2. LC Oscillators
 Hartley Oscillators
 Colpitts Oscillators
 Clapp Oscillators
3. Crystal Oscillators

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Barkhausen Criterion

Figure: basic block diagram of oscillator circuit

• Consider a fictitious (unreal) voltage Vi applied at the input of the
amplifier , we get,
 The feedback signal is ,
 For the oscillator feedback must derive the amplifier and hence Vf
must act as Vi. From the above equation, Vf is sufficient to act as Vi
when ||=1. and phase of Vf should be same as Vi.
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Barkhausen Criterion … Cont’d
Thus Barkhausen criterion states that:

1) The total phase shift around the loop as the signal proceeds
from input through amplifier, feedback network back to the
input again, completing the a loop is precisely 00 or 3600.

2) The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the

amplifier and the feedback factor is unity i.e. ||=1 .

 Satisfying these two conditions, the circuit works as an oscillator

producing sustained oscillations of constant frequency and
amplitude.
 In reality no input signal is required to start the oscillation.
Aβ is made greater than 1 to start the oscillation and the circuit
adjusts it self to get ||=1 , finally resulting in to self sustained
oscillation.
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Barkhausen Criterion … Cont’d
Effect of || on the nature of the oscillations
1. ||>1 growing type oscillation

3. ||=1  self - sustained

2. ||<1 decaying type oscillation oscillation

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Barkhausen Criterion … Starting voltage
We have said that, no external supply voltage is required to start
oscillation. So how does the oscillator start oscillation ? Where
does the starting voltage come from ?
Answer: every resistance has some free electrons. Under the
influence of normal room temperatures, these free electrons move
randomly in various directions . This generates a voltage called
noise voltage.  when the above two conditions meet,  it is
amplified the part of the output signal is sufficient to drive the
input of the amplifier circuit. It adjusts itself to ||=1 and sustained
oscillation.
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Overview
· Introduction to Oscillators
· Barkhausen Criterion
· Classification of oscillators
1. RC Oscillators
 RC phase shift oscillators
Wein Bridge Oscillators
2. LC Oscillators
 Hartley Oscillators
 Colpitts Oscillators
 Clapp Oscillators
3. Crystal Oscillators

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 Classification of oscillators
1). Based on output waveform:
 Sinusoidal oscillators: gives pure sinusoidal output
 Non-sinusoidal oscillators: gives output as triangular, square, saw tooth,…
2). Based on circuit components used:
 RC oscillators: if resistor and capacitor components are used. They are used at low(audio)
frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 200 kHz.
 LC oscillators: if inductor and capacitor are used and they are used at high (RF)frequency
range which is from 200kHz up to Gigahertz's.
 Crystal oscillators
3). Based on range of operating frequencies
 low(audio) frequency oscillators - if they generate oscillations at low(audio) frequency
level. i.e. 20Hz – 200kHz
 High-frequency oscillators - from 200kHz up to gigahertz frequency range
4). Based on whether feedback is used or not
 Feedback-type oscillators
 Non-feedback type of oscillators (relaxation)

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Classification of oscillators … Oscillator circuits

1. RC oscillators, used @ Low

Frequency
RC phase shift oscillator
Wien bridge oscillator Non-sinusoidal oscillators
Twin-T oscillator Triangular wave
generator,
2. LC oscillators @ High
rectangular(square) wave
Frequency
Saw tooth
Hartley oscillator
Colpitts oscillator
Clapp oscillator
3. Crystal oscillators

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Overview
· Introduction to Oscillators
· Barkhausen Criterion
· Classification of oscillators
1. RC Oscillators
 RC phase shift oscillators
Wein Bridge Oscillators
2. LC Oscillators
 Hartley Oscillators
 Colpitts Oscillators
 Clapp Oscillators
3. Crystal Oscillators

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 Classification of oscillators … 1. RC Oscillators
1. RC Phase Shift Oscillators
Contains resistors and capacitors in its feedback network arranged in a ladder
fashion. Let us take the RC ladder circuit shown below.

Taking a single RC circuit from the above,

 and since C and R are in series
…total impedance
 assume the r.m.s input voltage is Vi volts. Hence the current is given by ;

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 Classification of oscillators … 1. RC Oscillators
The output voltage , , is in phase with the current. Thus, as the current
leads the input voltage by 𝜙, the out put voltage also leads the input
voltage by 𝜙 .
N.B. by using proper values of R & C, the angle 𝜙 is adjusted in practice to
600 , as required by RC phase shift oscillator.
Thus, the feedback will introduce a phase shift of 180 0 to obtain a total
phase shift of 3600, as required by oscillators.
Thus, three cascaded RC circuits with 𝜙=600 each will give a total of 1800
phase shift across the feedback.
Feedback network is also called ladder network.

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 Classification of oscillators … 1. RC Oscillators
Phase shift oscillator using op-amp
Op-amp in inverting mode, and Aβ is slightly greater than 1 to start
oscillation.

To drive the value of β, let us consider the feedback network.

we are also going to find the frequency value at which the circuit
oscillates as well as the minimum value of the inverting amplifier to start
oscillation.

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 Classification of oscillators … 1. RC Oscillators
Applying KVL to the various loops,

We get;
….......(1)
….. (2)
…………(3)
re-arranging in matrix form and solving these equations, we obtain the values of β
and f as follows.
 and 
now, to have the oscillations, |Aβ|>=1.
Thus, 
Note: to start oscillation, the gain of the op-amp must be equal to or greater than 29,
which can be adjusted by using Rf and Ri.
Exercise: try to examine the transistorized phase shift oscillator.
 minimum value of hfe = 44.54 which is required to start oscillation.
frequency of oscillation , which is the same as using an op-amp.

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 Adva & disadvantages of RC phase shift oscillator:
Advantages of RC phase shift oscillator:

The circuit is simple to design

Can produce output over audio frequency range.
Produces sinusoidal output waveform.
It is fixed frequency oscillator

Disadvantage of RC phase shift oscillator

Frequency of oscillator is changed by changing values of R and

C. but the RC values of all three sections must be changed
simultaneously to satisfy the oscillating condition, which is
practically impossible.  fixed frequency oscillator.
Exercise: try to illustrate the phase shift oscillator using FET
transistor and come up with the formulas for |A| and |β|.
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Overview
· Introduction to Oscillators
· Barkhausen Criterion
· Classification of oscillators
1. RC Oscillators
 RC phase shift oscillators
Wein Bridge Oscillators
2. LC Oscillators
 Hartley Oscillators
 Colpitts Oscillators
 Clapp Oscillators
3. Crystal Oscillators

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 Classification of oscillators … 1. RC Oscillators
2. Wien Bridge Oscillator
It uses a non-inverting amplifier.
Thus, the feedback network does not bring a phase shift (0 degree
phase shift).
It can be implemented using op-amp or BJT transistor.
Using this circuit, let us drive the formulas for β and f.
The input to the feedback is at terminals 1 and 3 while the output is
at terminals 2 and 4

Figure: basic circuit of Wien bridge oscillator

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Classification of oscillators … 1. RC Oscillators
• The two arms of the bridge, namely R1 , C1 and R2, C2 are
called frequency sensitive arms, b/c the components of the two
arms determines the frequency of the oscillator
 such feedback network is called lead-lag network, b/c at low
frequency, it acts like a lead while at high frequency, it acts like a
lag.
Derivation for frequency of oscillation:
and

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 Classification of oscillators … 1. RC Oscillators

 thus,
Substituting the values of Z1 and Z2 in the
above equation for β and simplifying the result,
we get the values of β and f as follows.
 

 If R1=R2=R and C1=C2=C,

the gain of the feedback network is ,  positive sign indicates 00 phase shift.
This equation is true only if R1=R2 and C1=C2.
gain of the amplifier for oscillation is:
|Aβ|
The general formula for β and A is;
and

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 Classification of oscillators … 1. RC Oscillators
a) Wien Bridge oscillator using op-amp:

 Gain of the op-amp is adjusted using R 3 and R4.

 According to the oscillating condition, . thus , provides sufficient loop gain
for the circuit to oscillate at the frequency calculated as:
Example: determine if the above circuit with R 3=6k Ω, R4= 2k Ω, R=5.1kΩ
and C=0.001μF works as an oscillator or not. If yes, determine the frequency of
oscillation. Ans: A=4 >3 yes, and f =31.2kHz

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Comparison of RC phase shift and Wien bridge Oscillator
RC phase shift oscillator Wien Bridge oscillator
1 Used for low frequency range Used for low frequency range
2 The feedback network is RC network The feedback network is lead-lag network
with three RC sections called Wien bridge circuit
3 The feedback network introduces 1800 Feedback Does not introduce any phase
phase shift shift
4 Amplifier circuit introduces 1800 Amplifier does not introduce phase shift
phase shift
5 The frequency of oscillation is The frequency of oscillation is

6 The amplifier gain condition is |A| The amplifier gain condition is |A|

7 Frequency variation is difficult Frequency variation is possible by varying the

two capacitors on a common shaft and
varying their values.

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Overview
· Introduction to Oscillators
· Barkhausen Criterion
· Classification of oscillators
1. RC Oscillators
 RC phase shift oscillators
Wein Bridge Oscillators
2. LC Oscillators
 Hartley Oscillators
 Colpitts Oscillators
 Clapp Oscillators
3. Crystal Oscillators

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 Classification of oscillators … 2. LC (Tuned) Oscillators
Oscillators that uses L and C to produce oscillation.
The circuit that using L and C is called tank(oscillatory) circuit.
Used for high frequency range  from 200kHz up to few GHz.
These oscillators are used for sources of RF(Radio Frequency) due
to high frequency.
Operation of LC tank circuit:
Capacitor initially charges from
external DC source, thus electro-
static energy is stored in the capacitor.
Figure: initial charging

Figure: LC tank circuit

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 Classification of oscillators … 2. LC (Tuned) Oscillators
 Now, C starts to discharge  current starts to flow through L.
 Magnetic field gets setup in the inductor.
 When capacitor fully discharges, electrostatic energy is stored as
magnetic energy in the inductor.
 at this time, as per Lenz's law, this starts charging the capacitor
in opposite polarity making the lower plate of the capacitor +++
until it is fully charged.
 In such a way, the process repeats resulting in oscillatory current.
damped oscillation, where there is loss of energy during energy
transfer from C to L and from L to C.
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 Classification of oscillators … 2. LC (Tuned) Oscillators
To make the damped oscillation un-damped (sustained), the amplifier supplies
the loss of energy at proper time.
The frequency of oscillation obtained by this LC tank circuit is given by:
where, L is in henries and C is in farads

Basic form of LC oscillator circuit:

It has amplifier stage such as op-amp, BJT, FET…

The LC tank circuit contains , and which are

either capacitive or inductive impedances.
Assume that the input impedance of the
amplifier is infinity. (op-amp or FET).
Now replacing this with its linear equivalent circuit;
From this circuit, , where ZL=(Z1+Z3)||Z2. thus
 and
 the –ve sign  inverting

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 Classification of oscillators … 2. LC (Tuned) Oscillators
Condition for oscillation is but we know the values of A and β from the above
equations. Thus, substituting and solving we get,
where,
N.B. Z = jX
According to the barkhausen criterion, must be positive and greater or equal to
1. Since Av is +ve, will be positive only if both X1 & X2 have same sign.
 This is true only if X1 & X2 have same reactance.(i.e. both capacitive or inductive).
To have phase shift of 00,
 X3 must be inductive if X1 and X2 are capacitive or X3 must be capacitive if X1
and X2 are inductive.

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Overview
· Introduction to Oscillators
· Barkhausen Criterion
· Classification of oscillators
1. RC Oscillators
 RC phase shift oscillators
Wein Bridge Oscillators
2. LC Oscillators
 Hartley Oscillators
 Colpitts Oscillators
 Clapp Oscillators
3. Crystal Oscillators

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 Classification of oscillators … 2. LC (Tuned) Oscillators
1. Hartley Oscillators

Figure: Using op-amp Figure: Using BJT transistor

The amplifier gives 1800 phase shift. Thus, the tank circuit gives additional 1800
phase shift.
Going through a some procedure, we get the formula as :
………….frequency of oscillation
At this frequency, the value of hfe can be determined. ,which is value of hfe to
satisfy oscillation conditions.

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 Classification of oscillators … 2. LC (Tuned) Oscillators
1. Hartley Oscillators … Cont’d
Now, let is the equivalent inductance of L1 & L2 connected in series. Then, the
formula for the resonance frequency is given by:
In practice, L1 & L2 may be wound on a single core so that there exists a mutual
inductance b/n them denoted by M. In such cases, the equivalent inductance is
determined as; , and (for BJT transistor amplifier)
NB: if L1 & L2 assists each other, the sign of M is +ve, otherwise it is –ve.
If the amplifier used is op-amp, it’s gain will be;

if mutual inductance exists in between them (wound on a single core),

Example: In a Hartley oscillator, if L1=20ɥH, L2=2m,H and C is variable. Find the

range of C if frequency is to be varied from 1 MHz to 2.5 MHz Neglect mutual
inductance. Ans: C must vary from 2.0244 pF up to 12.6525 pF

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Overview
· Introduction to Oscillators
· Barkhausen Criterion
· Classification of oscillators
1. RC Oscillators
 RC phase shift oscillators
Wein Bridge Oscillators
2. LC Oscillators
 Hartley Oscillators
 Colpitts Oscillators
 Clapp Oscillators
3. Crystal Oscillators

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Classification of oscillators … 2. LC (Tuned) Oscillators
2. Colpitts Oscillators
An LC oscillator that uses two capacitive reactance's and one
inductive reactance at it’s feedback.
Both Amplifier and tank circuit introduces 1800 phase shift.

fig 1. using op-amp fig 2. colpitts oscillator using BJT transistor

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 Classification of oscillators … 2. LC (Tuned) Oscillators
2. Colpitts Oscillators … Cont’d
Looking at the transistorized colpitts oscillator, hfeIb is used as a source to the
tank circuit while Ib acts as an out put current from the tank circuit.
RFC(radio frequency choke) at the collector of BJT- has high reactance for high
frequency signal (open circuit) and low reactance for dc supply (short circuit).
The frequency at which the oscillator oscillates is given by;
where, is equivalent capacitance of C1 & C2 in series.
For BJT transistorized colpitts oscillator,
For colpitts oscillator using an op-amp, the gain of the amplifier is
Example: design the value of an inductor to be used in colpitts oscillator to generate
a frequency of 10MHz. The circuit uses a value of C1=100pF and C2=50pF.
Ans: L = 7.6 ɥH

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Overview
· Introduction to Oscillators
· Barkhausen Criterion
· Classification of oscillators
1. RC Oscillators
 RC phase shift oscillators
Wein Bridge Oscillators
2. LC Oscillators
 Hartley Oscillators
 Colpitts Oscillators
 Clapp Oscillators
3. Crystal Oscillators

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 Classification of oscillators … 2. LC (Tuned) Oscillators
3. Clapp Oscillators
It is modification of colpitts oscillator to achieve frequency stability.
Here, capacitor C3 is added in series with L to the tank circuit of colpitts
oscillator as shown below.
N.B. The value of C3 is much smaller than C1 and C2.
thus, Ceq Ξ C3.
 is the equivalent capacitance in series.
And . But since C3 is smaller than C1 & C2, Ceq Ξ C3.
Therefore, which depends only C3.
 Now, across C3, there is no transistor parameter (i.e. hfe is independent of C3)
hence stable frequency.
Advantages:
The frequency is stable and accurate.
The stray capacitances have no effect on C3 which decides the frequency.
Keeping C3 variable, the frequency of oscillation can be varied to the desired value.

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 Factors affecting the frequency stability of Oscillators
1. Change in values of inductors and capacitors of tank circuit
due to change in temperature.
2. Change in parameters of active devices used like FET &
BJT due to change in temperature which in turn affects
frequency.
3. Variation in power supply.
4. Change in atmospheric condition, aging and unstable
transistor parameters.
5. The changes in the load connected affects the effective resistance
of tank ckt.
6. The capacitive effect in transistor and stray capacitances
affect the capacitance of the tank circuit and hence the frequency.

Exercise: try to read ways of improving stability of oscillators.

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Overview
· Introduction to Oscillators
· Barkhausen Criterion
· Classification of oscillators
1. RC Oscillators
 RC phase shift oscillators
Wein Bridge Oscillators
2. LC Oscillators
 Hartley Oscillators
 Colpitts Oscillators
 Clapp Oscillators
3. Crystal Oscillators

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 Classification of Oscillators … 3. Crystal Oscillator
It is a tuned-circuit oscillator using piezoelectric crystal as its tank circuit.
This is used when high frequency stability is required.
Thus, the crystals are used in watches, communication transmitters and receivers.
Piezoelectric effect means to generate voltage across the faces of the crystal
under the influence of mechanical pressure(force).
Every crystal has its own resonating frequency.
Examples are quartz, Rochelle salt, tourmaline
CM- mounting capacitance – when
there is no mechanical
vibrations.

figure1: Symbolic representation 2. ac equivalent circuit

The equation for the resonant frequency fr is;

But most of the time , quality factor is very large. thus,

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 Classification of Oscillators … 3. Crystal Oscillator
Series and parallel resonance:
a) Series resonance: when the reactances of the series RLC leg are equal(Xc=XL).
 The impedance offered by this branch at resonance is minimum which is R.
 The series resonance frequency is given by:
b) Parallel resonance: when the reactances of the series leg are equal to the
reactance of the mounting capacitor CM.
 Under this condition, the impedance offered by the crystal to the external
circuit is maximum.
 Here, and the parallel resonant frequency is given by;fp

When C is very smaller than CM, then fs fp=fr. there is one resonant
frequency.
Due to good frequency stability, it is used in computers, counters, basic
timing devices in electronic wrist watches e.t.c.

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Classification of Oscillators … 3. Crystal Oscillator

Figure: Frequency versus crystal impedance

Pierce crystal oscillator:

Is modified version of the Colpitts oscillator by replacing the
inductor in the tank circuit by crystal.
The crystal behaves like an inductor for a frequency slightly
higher than the series resonant frequency fs.
The basic working principle is the same as colpitts oscillator.
The practical transistorized pierce crystal oscillator circuit is shown
below.

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 Classification of Oscillators … 3. Crystal Oscillator
 Resistances R1, R2 and RE provides d.c. bias.
 CE emitter bypass capacitor
RFC(radio frequency choke)-
provides isolation b/n d.c. and a.c. operation.
 CC1 & CC2 – Coupling capacitors
The resulting circuit frequency is set by
the series resonant frequency of the crystal.
 Changes in supply voltage, temperature,
transistor parameters have no effect on the
Figure: pierce crystal oscillator
circuit operating conditions
i.e. good frequency stability is obtained.
The base-collector (gate-drain in case of FET) junction is reverse
biased and there exists an internal capacitance which is dominant at
high frequencies.

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 Classification of Oscillators … 3. Crystal Oscillator
 Thus, this oscillator circuit can be modified by using internal capacitors
of the transistor instead of C1 and C2.(C1 & C2 are not required).
 Such circuit using FET and transistor are shown below

fig a. using FET fig b. using transistor

Similar to the modifications of Colpitts oscillator, the Hartley oscillator
can be modified to get Millers crystal oscillator circuit.
One of the inductors in the tank circuit of the Hartley oscillator is replaced
by a crystal which acts as inductor for frequencies slightly greater than
the series resonant frequency.
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Classification of Oscillators … 3. Crystal Oscillator

Figure: Miller crystal oscillator

Example: a crystal with L=0.4 H, C= 0.085 pF, CM = 1pF, and R =5kΩ

find;
a) series resonant frequency …………..0.856 MHz
b) parallel resonant frequency………….0.899 MHz
c) by what percent does the parallel resonant frequency exceed
the series resonant frequency……………….
d) find the Q-factor of the crystal ……..

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Thank
You!!!
47