Module-5: Bandwidth Utilization:

Multiplexing
 MULTIPLEXING
 Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals across a single data link.

 Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available bandwidth to achieve specific

goals.

 Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing.

 In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of
one link.

 The lines on the left direct their transmission streams to a

multiplexer (MUX), which combines them into a single
stream (many-to- one).

 At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a

demultiplexer (DEMUX), which separates the stream
back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and
directs them to their corresponding lines.
• In the figure, the word link refers to the physical path.

• The word channel refers to the portion of a link that carries a

transmission between a given pair of lines.

• One link can have many (n) channels.

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 There are three basic multiplexing techniques: frequency-
division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, and
time-division multiplexing.

 The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the
third, for digital signals.
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
It is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a
link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to
be transmitted.

• In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different

carrier frequencies.

•These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite

signal that can be transported by the link.

• Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to

accommodate the modulated signal.

•These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various
signals travel.
•
•Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth guard
bands to prevent signals from overlapping.

• In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original

data frequencies.

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 The de-multiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the
multiplexed signal into its constituent component signals.

 The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that

separates them from their carriers and passes them to the output
lines.
Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed
together. What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need
for a guard band of 10 kHz between the channels to prevent
interference?

Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means that
the required bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz
 The Analog Carrier System

To maximize the efficiency of their infrastructure, telephone

companies have traditionally multiplexed signals from lower-
bandwidth lines onto higher-bandwidth lines.

In this way, many switched or leased lines can be combined into
fewer but bigger channels

For analog lines, FDM is used.

One of these hierarchical systems used by telephone companies is

made up of groups, supergroups, master groups, and jumbo groups
(see below figure).
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 In this analog hierarchy, 12 voice channels are multiplexed onto a
higher-bandwidth line to create a group.

 A group has 48 kHz of bandwidth and supports 12 voice channels.

 At the next level, up to five groups can be multiplexed to create a

composite signal called a supergroup.

 A supergroup has a bandwidth of 240 kHz and supports up to 60

voice channels. Supergroups can be made up of either five groups
or 60 independent voice channels.
• At the next level, 10 supergroups are multiplexed to create a
master group.

• A master group must have 2.40 MHz of bandwidth, but the need
for guard bands between the super groups increases the
necessary bandwidth to 2.52 MHz.

• Master groups support up to 600 voice channels.

• Finally, six master groups can be combined into a jumbo group.

• A jumbo group must have 15.12 MHz (6 × 2.52 MHz) but is

augmented to 16.984 MHz to allow for guard bands between the
master groups.

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 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)
It is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic cable. The optical
fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable.

 Using a fiber-optic cable for one single line wastes the available bandwidth.
Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into one.

WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals. The

combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a prism.

Recall from basic physics that a prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of
incidence and the frequency.
 Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine several
input beams of light, each containing a narrow band of frequencies, into
one output beam of a wider band of frequencies. A de-multiplexer can
also be made to reverse the process.

 One application of WDM is the SONET network in which multiple optical

fiber lines are multiplexed and de-multiplexed.

 A new method, called dense WDM (DWDM), can multiplex a very large
number of channels by spacing channels very close to one another. It
achieves even greater efficiency.
 Time-Division Multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several
connections to share the high bandwidth of a link.

Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared. Each

connection occupies a portion of time in the link.

Note that the same link is used as in FDM; here, however, the link is shown
sectioned by time rather than by frequency.

In the figure, portions of signals 1, 2, 3, and 4 occupy the link sequentially. TDM is
a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate channels into one
high-rate one.
 We can divide TDM into two different schemes: synchronous and statistical.

 In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment in the output even if it is
not sending data.

 Time Slots and Frames:

 In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input connection is divided
into units, where each input occupies one input time slot.
 A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of data. Each input unit
becomes one output unit and occupies one output time slot.
 However, the duration of an output time slot is n times shorter than the
duration of an input time slot.
 If an input time slot is T s, the output time slot is T/n s, where n is the
number of connections.
 In other words, a unit in the output connection has a shorter duration; it
travels faster.
 In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times faster, and the
unit duration is n times shorter.
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 Ex
ample 3

In the above figure, the data rate for each

input connection is 1 kbps. If 1 bit at a time is
multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what is the
duration of (a) each input slot, (b) each output
slot, and (c) each frame?
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  Figure shows synchronous TOM with a data stream for each input and one
data stream for the output.

 The unit of data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit duration, (b) the output bit
duration, (c) the output bit rate, and

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate: 1/1 Mbps = 1 µs.
b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit duration, or 1/4µs.
c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit duration or 1/4 µs, or 4
Mbps. This can also be deduced from the fact that the output rate is 4 times as
fast as any input rate; so the output rate =4 x 1 Mbps =4 Mbps.

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Interleaving
TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches, one on the multiplexing
side and the other on the demultiplexing side.

The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed, but in opposite
directions.

On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that
connection has the opportunity to send a unit onto the path.

This process is called interleaving.

Empty Slots
Synchronous TDM is not as efficient as it could be. If a source does not have data
to send, the corresponding slot in the output frame is empty.

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Empty slot:
If a source does not have data to send,i.e., if the data rate of all input devices
are not same , the corresponding slot in the output frame is empty.

Figure-33 shows a case in which one of the input lines has no data to send
and one slot in another input line has discontinuous data.

The first output frame has three slots filled, the second frame has two slots
filled, and the third frame has three slots filled. No frame is full.

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Data Rate Management
One problem with TDM is how to handle a disparity in the input data rates. In all our
discussion so far, we assumed that the data rates of all input lines were the same.
However, if data rates are not the same, three strategies, or a combination of them,
can be used. We call these three strategies multilevel multiplexing, multiple-slot
allocation, and pulse stuffing.

1. Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used when the data rate of an input line is a
multiple of others. For example, in Figure, we have two inputs of 20 kbps and three
inputs of 40 kbps. The first two input lines can be multiplexed together to provide a
data rate equal to the last three. A second level of multiplexing can create an output of
160 kbps.
2. Multiple-Slot Allocation Sometimes it is more efficient to allot more than one slot
in a frame to a single input line. For example, we might have an input line that has a
data rate that is a multiple of another input. In Figure, the input line with a 50-kbps
data rate can be given two slots in the output. We insert a serial-to-parallel converter in
the line to make two inputs out of one.

3. Pulse Stuffing Sometimes the bit rates of sources are not multiple integers of
each other. Therefore, neither of the above two techniques can be applied. One
solution is to make the highest input data rate the dominant data rate and then add
dummy bits to the input lines with lower rates. This will increase their rates. This
technique is called pulse stuffing, bit padding, or bit stuffing. The input with a data
rate of 46 is pulse-stuffed to increase the rate to 50 kbps. Now multiplexing can
take place.
Frame Synchronizing : Synchronization between the multiplexer and demultiplexer
is a major issue. If the. multiplexer and the demultiplexer are not synchronized, a bit
belonging to one channel may be received by the wrong channel. For this reason, one
or more synchronization bits are usually added to the beginning of each frame. These
bits, called framing bits, follow a pattern, frame to frame, that allows the
demultiplexer to synchronize with the incoming stream so that it can separate the
time slots accurately. In most cases, this synchronization information consists of 1 bit
per frame, alternating between 0 and 1.
4. Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
As we saw in the previous section, in synchronous TDM, each input has a reserved
slot in the output frame. This can be inefficient if some input lines have no data to
send. In statistical time-division multiplexing, slots are dynamically allocated to
improve bandwidth efficiency. Only when an input line has a slot's worth of data to
send is it given a slot in the output frame. In statistical multiplexing, the number of
slots in each frame is less than the number of input lines. The multiplexer checks
each input line in round- robin fashion; it allocates a slot for an input line if the line
has data to send; otherwise, it skips the line and checks the next line.

Addressing: An output slot in synchronous TDM is totally occupied by data; in

statistical TDM, a slot needs to carry data as well as the address of the destination.
In synchronous TDM, there is no need for addressing; synchronization and
preassigned relationships between the inputs and outputs serve as an address. In
statistical multiplexing, there is no fixed relationship between the inputs and outputs
because there are no preassigned or reserved slots.
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Slot Size
Since a slot carries both data and an address in statistical TDM, the ratio of the data
size to address size must be reasonable to make transmission efficient. For example,
it would be inefficient to send 1 bit per slot as data when the address is 3 bits. In
statistical TDM, a block of data is usually many bytes while the address is just a few
bytes.

No Synchronization Bit
The frames in statistical TDM need not be synchronized, so we do not need
synchronization bits.

Bandwidth
In statistical TDM, the capacity of the link is normally less than the sum of the
capacities of each channel. The designers of statistical TDM define the capacity of
the link based on the statistics of the load for each channel.
Difference between Synchronous and statistical TDM

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