Course No: MKT-125

General Science and Environment

Chapter:
Bonding

Lecture given by
Dr. Md. Anwarul Azim Akhand
Professor
Dept. of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology
University of Dhaka
 Chemical Bonds: How atoms Form Molecules
• When the outermost energy level of an atom is not completely
filled by electrons, one may think of it as having either unfilled
spaces or extra electrons in that energy level, depending on
whether it is easier for the atom to gain or lose electrons.
• For example, an atom of oxygen, with two electrons in the first
energy level and six in the second, has two unfilled spaces in
the second electron shell; an atom of magnesium has two
extra electrons in its outermost shell.
Mg can donate 2 electrons and O
• The most chemically stable configuration for any atom is to can accept 2 electrons
have its outermost shell filled.
• Therefore, for these two atoms to attain that state, oxygen
must gain two electrons, and magnesium must lose two
electrons.
• Because all atoms tend to combine so that the extra electrons
in the outermost shell of one atom fill the spaces of the
outermost shell of the other atom, oxygen and magnesium
combine so that the outermost shell of each atom has the full
complement of eight electrons. Ionic bond
 Chemical Bonds: How atoms Form Molecules
• The valence, or combining capacity, of an atom is the number of extra or missing
electrons in its outermost electron shell.
• For example, hydrogen has a valence of 1 (one unfilled space, or one extra electron),
oxygen has a valence of 2 (two unfilled spaces), carbon has a valence of 4 (four unfilled
spaces, or four extra electrons), and magnesium has a valence of 2 (two extra electrons).
• Basically, atoms achieve the full complement of electrons in their outermost energy shells
by combining to form molecules, which are made up of atoms of one or more elements. A
molecule that contains at least two different kinds of atoms, such as H2O (the water
molecule), is called a compound. In H2O, the subscript 2 indicates that there are two
atoms of hydrogen; the absence of a subscript indicates that there is only one atom of
oxygen.
• Molecules hold together because the valence electrons of the combining atoms form
attractive forces, called chemical bonds, between the atomic nuclei. Chemical bonding,
therefore, refers to the formation of a chemical bond between two or more atoms,
molecules or ions to give rise to a chemical compound. These chemical bonds are what
keep the atoms together in the resulting compound.
• Therefore, valence may also be viewed as the bonding capacity of an element. Because
energy is required for chemical bond formation, each chemical bond possesses a certain
amount of potential chemical energy.
 Types of Chemical Bonds

• When substances participate in chemical bonding and yield compounds, the stability of
the resulting compound can be determined by the type of chemical bonds it contains.
• The type of chemical bonds formed varies in strength and properties. There are four
primary types of chemical bonds which are formed by atoms or molecules to yield
compounds. These types of chemical bonds include:
1. Ionic Bonds
2. Covalent Bonds
3. Hydrogen Bonds
4. Metallic Bonds
• These types of bonds in chemical bonding are formed from the loss, gain or sharing of
electrons between two atoms/molecules.
 Types of Chemical Bonds: Ionic Bond

• Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bonding which involves a transfer of electrons from
one atom or molecule to another.
• Here, an atom loses an electron, which is, in turn, gained by another atom.
• When such an electron transfer takes place, one of the atoms develops a negative charge
and is now called the anion. The other atom develops a positive charge and is called the
cation.
• The presence of two oppositely charged ions results in a strong attractive force between
them. This force is an ionic or electrovalent bond.
• Ionic bonds form between atoms with large differences in electronegativity, whereas
covalent bonds formed between atoms with smaller differences in electronegativity.
• The ionic bond gains strength from the difference in charge between the two atoms, i.e.,
the greater the charge disparity between the cation and the anion, the stronger the ionic
bond.
Example of Ionic Bond
 Example of Ionic Bond
• See another example of the reaction between magnesium and chlorine as ionic bond
formation. The magnesium atom has two electrons in its outermost shell. By losing two
electrons from its M shell its L shell becomes the outermost shell that has a stable octet.
So, a net positive charge is developed on this magnesium atom, giving a magnesium
cation Mg2+.
• On the other hand, the chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outermost shell.
Therefore, it needs only one electron to complete its octet. It can gain this one electron
from the electrons lost by the magnesium atom to become magnesium ion. As two
electrons are lost by a magnesium atom while one chlorine atom can gain only one
electron, two atoms of chlorine combine with one atom of magnesium to form
magnesium chloride.
 Example of Ionic Bond

Electronic
Element Reaction Formed ion
config.

Na(11) 2,8,1 Na → Na+ + e– .........reaction 1 Na+

Ca(20) 2,8,8,2 Ca → Ca2+ + 2e–.......reaction 2 Ca2+

Cl(17) 2,8,7 Cl + e–→ Cl– .............reaction 3 Cl–

O(8) 2,6 O + 2e–→ O2-............reaction 4 O2-

• Now when Na reacts with Cl, reaction 1 and reaction 3 will take place and the resultant
compound will be NaCl.
• When Na reacts with O, reaction 1 and reaction 4 will take place and the resultant
compound will be Na2
• When Ca reacts with Cl, reaction 2 and reaction 3 will take place and the resultant
compound will be CaCl2.
• When Ca reacts with O, reaction 2 and reaction 4 will take place and the resultant
compound will be CaO.
 Properties of Ionic Bond

Due to the presence of a strong force of attraction between cations and anions in ionic
bonded molecules, the following properties are observed:
• The ionic bonds are the strongest of all the bonds.
• The ionic bond has charge separation, and so they are the most reactive of all the bonds in
the proper medium.
• The ionic bonded molecules have high melting and boiling point.
• The ionic bonded molecules in their aqueous solutions or in the molten state are good
conductors of electricity. This is due to the presence of ions which acts as charge carriers.
 Types of Chemical Bonds: Covalent Bond
• A covalent bond indicates the sharing of electrons between atoms.
• Compounds that contain carbon (also called organic compounds) commonly exhibit this
type of chemical bonding.
• This sharing of electrons happens because the atoms must satisfy the octet (noble gas
configuration) rule while bonding.
• One pair of electrons shared between two atoms constitutes a single covalent bond,
generally referred to as a single bond. An unshared pair of valence electrons is called a
lone pair.
• The pair of electrons which are shared by the two atoms now extend around the nuclei of
atoms, leading to the creation of a molecule. Covalent bonding can be achieved in two
ways: Sharing of electrons between atoms of the same kind, for example, formation of H 2,
Cl2, O2, etc. Sharing of electrons between atoms of different kinds, for example, formation
of CH4, H2O, NH3, etc.

• Example: Two atoms of hydrogen (H) combine to form hydrogen (H2) gas. Each atom of
hydrogen has one electron and would be more stable with two electrons. There is no
reason why one hydrogen atom would donate its electron and the other accept it. Instead,
the two hydrogen atoms can share their electrons: H· + H· → H:H
• One atom of carbon (C) combines with four atoms of hydrogen (H) to form methane (CH 4).
Example of Covalent Bond
 Properties of Covalent Bond

• Formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms

• Formed between two nonmetals or between a nonmetal and a metalloid
• Covalent bonding does not result in the formation of new electrons. The bond only pairs
them.
• There can be multiple covalent bonds between two atoms
• They are very powerful chemical bonds that exist between atoms.
• A covalent bond normally contains an energy of about ~80 kilocalories per mole (kcal/mol).
• Covalent bonds rarely break spontaneously after it is formed.
• Covalent bonds are directional, where the atoms that are bonded showcase specific
orientations relative to one another.
• Most compounds having covalent bonds exhibit relatively low melting points and boiling
points.
• Compounds with covalent bonds usually have lower enthalpies of vaporization and fusion.
• Compounds formed by covalent bonding don’t conduct electricity due to the lack of free
electrons.
• Covalent compounds are not soluble in water.
 Types of Covalent Bond

• A covalent bond can be classified by the number of shared

electrons, the polarity of bonds, and the coordination of
the atoms.
• Based on the number of shared electron pairs, there are
three types of covalent bonds:
• 1. Single Covalent Bond: When one pair of electrons, or
two electrons, are shared between the atoms, it is known
as a single covalent bond or merely a single bond.
Examples: H2, Cl2, Br2, I2, HCl, NH3, CH4, and C2H6
• 2. Double Covalent bond: When two pairs of electrons, or
four electrons, are shared between the atoms, it is known
as a double covalent bond or double bond. Examples: O2,
CO2, SO2, and C2H4
• 3. Triple Covalent Bond: When three pairs of electrons, or
six electrons, are shared between the atoms, it is known as
a triple covalent bond or triple bond. Examples: N2, C2H2,
and CN–
 Types of Covalent Bond

• Based on the polarity of the bond and the coordination of

the atoms, there can be three other types of covalent
bonds:
• 1. Polar Covalent Bond: A covalent bond is likely to be
polar when the atoms sharing the electrons have a
significant difference in their electronegativities, i.e.,
between 0.1 to 2. As a result, the bonded pair is attracted
toward the more electronegative atom making that atom
slightly negative, and the other atom becomes slightly
positive. Examples: H2O, CHCl3, CH3OH, HCl, and NH3
• 2. Nonpolar Covalent Bond: When the electronegativity
difference between the atoms is zero, then electrons are
equally shared between the atoms. In this case, the
covalent bond is nonpolar. Examples: H2, O2, N2, CO2, and
CH4
• 3. Coordinate Covalent Bond or Dative Covalent Bond: In
this type of covalent bond, the shared pair of electrons
comes from one of the atoms. This kind of bond is typically
observed in the bonding of metal ions to ligands.
Examples: BF3.NH3, Al2Cl6, HNO3, CO, H3O+, and NH4+
 Ionic Bond VS Covalent Bond

Covalent Bonds Ionic Bonds

A covalent bond is formed between two similar This type of bond is formed between a metal
electronegative non-metals and non-metal

Bonds formed from covalent bonding have a Ionic bonds have no definite shape
definite shape

Low melting point and boiling point High melting point and boiling point

Low polarity and more flammable High polarity and less flammable

Covalent bonds are in a liquid or gaseous state At room temperature, ionic bonds have a solid
at room temperature state.

Examples: Methane, Hydrochloric acid Examples: Sodium chloride, Sulfuric Acid

 Types of Chemical Bonds: Hydrogen Bond

• Compared to ionic and covalent bonding, Hydrogen bonding is a weaker form of chemical
bonding.
• It is a type of polar covalent bonding between oxygen and hydrogen, wherein the hydrogen
develops a partial positive charge.
• This implies that the electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative oxygen atom.
• This creates a tendency for the hydrogen to be attracted towards the negative charges of
any neighbouring atom.
• This type of chemical bonding is called a hydrogen bond and is responsible for many of the
properties exhibited by water.
 Types of Chemical Bonds: Hydrogen Bond

Hydrogen Bonding in Water

• A water molecule contains a highly electronegative oxygen atom linked to the hydrogen
atom.
• The oxygen atom attracts the shared pair of electrons more, and this end of the molecule
becomes negative, whereas the hydrogen atoms become positive.
 Types of Chemical Bonds: Hydrogen Bond

Hydrogen Bonding in Ammonia

• It contains highly electronegative atom nitrogen linked to hydrogen atoms.
Hydrogen Bonding in Alcohols and Carboxylic Acid
Alcohol is a type of organic molecule which contains an -OH group. Normally, if any
molecule which contains the hydrogen atom is connected to either oxygen or nitrogen
directly, then hydrogen bonding is easily formed.

Hydrogen Bonding in Carboxylic Acid Hydrogen bonding in alcohols

 Properties of Hydrogen Bond

• Solubility: Lower alcohols are soluble in water because of the hydrogen bonding which can
take place between water and alcohol molecules.
• Volatility: As the compounds involving hydrogen bonding between different molecules have
a higher boiling point, they are less volatile.
• Viscosity and surface tension: The substances which contain hydrogen bonding exist as
associated molecules. So, their flow becomes comparatively difficult. They have higher
viscosity and high surface tension.
• The lower density of ice than water: In the case of solid ice, hydrogen bonding gives rise to
a cage-like structure of water molecules. As a matter of fact, each water molecule is linked
tetrahedral to four water molecules. The molecules are not as closely packed as they are in a
liquid state. When ice melts, this case-like structure collapses, and the molecules come
closer to each other. Thus for the same mass of water, the volume decreases and density
increases. Therefore, ice has a lower density than water at 273 K. That is why ice floats.
 Types of Chemical Bonds: Metallic Bond

• A metallic bond is formed in the case of metals that form metallic lattices in which
positively charged metal ions are surrounded by electrons.
• Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding and is responsible for several
characteristic properties of metals such as their shiny lustre, their malleability, and their
conductivities for heat and electricity.
• This lattice structure and the fact that metal ions are attracted to the delocalized
electrons grants metals high melting and boiling points.
• Metals are the best electricity conductors due to the motion of the electrons.
• Metallic bonds differ from covalent and ionic bonds because it is formed by the attraction
of positively charged metal nuclei and their delocalized valence electrons between two or
more metal atoms.
• The factors that affect the strength of a metallic bond include:
Total number of delocalized electrons.
Magnitude of positive charge held by the metal cation.
Ionic radius of the cation
An illustration describing the way electrons are
delocalized over a rigid lattice of metal ions in a
metallic bond is provided below.
 Metallic Bonding in Sodium and Magnesium
• The electron configuration of sodium is 1s22s22p63s1; it contains one electron in its
valence shell. In the solid-state, metallic sodium features an array of Na + ions that are
surrounded by a sea of 3s electrons.
• However, it would be incorrect to think of metallic sodium as an ion since the sea of
electrons is shared by all the sodium cations, quenching the positive charge.
• An illustration describing the metallic bonding in
sodium is shown.
• The softness and low melting point of sodium
can be explained by the relatively low number of
electrons in the electron sea and the relatively
small charge on the sodium cation.
• For example, metallic magnesium consists of an
array of Mg2+ ions. The electron sea here contains
twice the number of electrons than the one in
sodium (since two 3s electrons are delocalized
into the sea, 1s22s22p63s2). Due to the greater
magnitude of charge and the greater electron
density in the sea, the melting point of
magnesium (~650oC) is significantly higher than
that of sodium.
 Properties of Metallic Bond

• Because electrons are delocalized around positively

charged nuclei, metallic bonding explains many
properties of metals. Some are noted below:
• Electrical conductivity: Most metals are excellent
electrical conductors because the electrons in the
electron sea are free to move and carry charge. Since
the movement of electrons is not restricted in the
electron sea, any electric current passed through the
metal passes through it, as illustrated below. Conductive
nonmetals (such as graphite), molten ionic compounds,
and aqueous ionic compounds conduct electricity for
the same reason—electrons are free to move around.

• Thermal conductivity: Metals conduct heat because the free electrons are able to
transfer energy away from the heat source and also because vibrations of atoms
(phonons) move through a solid metal as a wave.
 Properties of Metallic Bond

• Malleability and Ductility: When an ionic crystal (such as sodium chloride crystal) is
beaten with a hammer, it shatters into many smaller pieces. This is because the atoms in
the crystals are held together in a rigid lattice that is not easily deformed. The
introduction of a force (from the hammer) causes the crystal structure to fracture,
resulting in the shattering of the crystal.
In the case of metals, the sea of electrons in the metallic bond enables the deformation
of the lattice. Therefore, when metals are beaten with a hammer, the rigid lattice is
deformed and not fractured. This is why metals can be beaten into thin sheets. Since
these lattices do not fracture easily, metals are said to be highly ductile.
• Metallic Luster: Metals tend to be shiny or display metallic luster. They are opaque once a
certain minimum thickness is achieved. The electron sea reflects photons off the smooth
surface. There is an upper-frequency limit to the light that can be reflected. When light is
incident on a metallic surface, the energy of the photon is absorbed by the sea of
electrons that constitute the metallic bond. The absorption of energy excites the
electrons, increasing their energy levels. These excited electrons quickly return to their
ground states, emitting light in the process. This emission of light due to the de-excitation
of electrons attributes a shiny metallic lustre to the metal.
 Properties of Metallic Bond

• High Melting and Boiling Points: As a result of powerful metallic bonding, the attractive
force between the metal atoms is quite strong. In order to overcome this force of
attraction, a great deal of energy is required. This is the reason why metals tend to have
high melting and boiling points. The exceptions to this include zinc, cadmium, and
mercury (explained by their electron configurations, which end with ns 2).
The metallic bond can retain its strength even when the metal is in its melt state. For
example, gallium melts at 29.76oC but boils only at 2400oC. Therefore, molten gallium is a
non volatile liquid.
 Difference among Ionic, Covalent and Metallic Bonds

IONIC BOND COVALENT BOND METALLIC BOND

Occurs during the transfer of Occurs when 2 atoms share their The attraction of metal
electrons valence electrons cations/atoms and delocalized
electrons

Binding energy is higher than the Binding energy is higher than the Binding energy is less than
metallic bond metallic bond covalent and ionic bond

Low conductivity Very low conductivity Has high electrical conductivity

Non-directional bond Directional bond Non-directional bond

Present only in one state: solid- Present only in all 3 states: solid, Present only in one state: solid-
state liquid, gases state

Non-malleable Non-malleable Malleable

Higher melting point Lower melting point High melting point

Non-ductile Non-ductile Ductile

Higher boiling point Lower boiling point High boiling point

 Shapes of Molecules
• The shapes of molecules and their bond angles (the angles between the covalent bonds)
are not random, but are determined according to a set of principles called Valence Shell
Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)
• The theory was first presented by Sidgwick and Powell in 1940. The VSEPR theory is used
to predict the shape of the molecules from the electron pairs that surround the central
atoms of the molecule.
• The VSEPR theory is based on the premise that there is a repulsion between the pairs of
valence electrons in all atoms, and the atoms will always tend to arrange themselves in a
manner in which this electron pair repulsion is minimized. This arrangement of the atom
determines the geometry of the resulting molecule.
 Features of VSEPR Theory
The main features of VSEPR theory are:
• The shape of a molecule depends upon the number of valence shell electron pairs
(bonded or non-bonded) around the central atom.
• Pairs of electrons in the valence shell repel one another since their electron clouds are
negatively charged.
• The positions of the electron pairs in space around the central atom are such that they
minimize repulsion and thus maximize distance between them.
• The magnitudes of the different types of electronic repulsions follows the order given
below:
Lone pair – Lone pair > Lone pair – Bonding pair > Bonding pair – Bonding pair
• These repulsive forces alter the bond angles of the molecule or ion.
• The electronic repulsion between two pairs of electrons will be minimum if they are as far
apart as possible. On this basis, the following geometrical arrangements are most suited.
 Types of Molecular Geometry
(i) Linear molecular geometry: In this structure two molecules are attached to the central
atom. So they arranged in the opposite direction in order to minimize their repulsion.
The bond angle of this structure is 1800. Example: BeCl2, MgCl2 etc.
(ii) Trigonal planar molecular geometry: In this type of molecule, we find three molecules
attached to a central atom. So they are arranged toward the corners of an
equilateral triangle in order to minimize their repulsion. The bond angle of this
structure is 1200. Example: BF3, BCl3, AlF3 etc.
(iii) Tetrahedral molecular geometry: In a tetrahedral molecular geometry, a central atom is
located at the center with four substituents that are located at the corners of a
tetrahedron. The bond angle of the structure is 109028’. Example: CH4, CCl4 etc.
(iv) Trigonal Bipyramidal molecular geometry: Let’s take an example of PF5. Here, repulsion
can be minimized by even distribution of electrons towards the corner of a trigonal
pyramid. In a trigonal bipyramid, three positions lie along the equator of the molecule.
The two positions lie along an axis perpendicular to the equatorial plane. The bond
angle are 900 and 1200
(v) Octahedral molecular geometry: Octahedral molecular geometry describes the shape
of compounds with six atoms or groups of atoms or ligands symmetrically arranged
around a central atom, defining the vertices of an octahedron. The bond angle is 900.
Example: SF6, TeF6 etc.
 Geometry of some covalent
molecules based on VSEPR theory

Molecular No of Bond No of Lone Molecular Shape of the Examples

Type Pairs Pairs geometry molecule

AB2 2 0 BeCl2, BeF2

Linear Linear
AB3 3 0 BF3, BCl3
Trigonal
Planer

AB2L 2 1 Trigonal Planer SO2

Trigonal
Planer
AB4 4 0 Bent CH4, CCl4

Tetrahedral Tetrahedral
 Geometry of some covalent
molecules based on VSEPR theory
Molecular No of Bond No of Lone Molecular Shape of the Examples
Type Pairs Pairs geometry molecule

AB3L 3 1 NH3

AB2L2 2 2 Tetrahedral Pyramidal H2O

AB5 5 0 PF5
Tetrahedral Bent

Trigonal bipyramidalTrigonal bipyramidal

 Geometry of some covalent
molecules based on VSEPR theory
Molecular No of Bond No of Lone Molecular Shape of the Examples
Type Pairs Pairs geometry molecule

AB4L 4 1 SF4

AB3L2 3 2 Trigonal bipyramidal Sea-saw ClF3

AB2L3 2 3 XeF2
T-shaped
Trigonal bipyramidal

Linear
Trigonal bipyramidal
 Geometry of some covalent
molecules based on VSEPR theory
Molecular No of Bond No of Lone Molecular Shape of the Examples
Type Pairs Pairs geometry molecule

AB6 6 0 SF6, TeF6

Octahedral Octahedral
AB5L 5 1 ClF5

AB4L2 4 2 XeF4
Octahedral Square pyramidal

Octahedral Square planer

 Periodic Table
What is the Periodic Table? Why is Periodic Table Made?
• The periodic table is an arrangement of all the elements known in accordance with their
increasing atomic number and recurring chemical properties.
• They are assorted in a tabular arrangement wherein a row is a period and a column is a
group.
• Elements are arranged from left to right and top to bottom in the order of their increasing
atomic numbers.
• Thus, Elements in the same group will have the same valence electron configuration and
hence, similar chemical properties.
• Whereas, elements in the same period will have an increasing order of valence electrons.
Therefore, as the energy level of the atom increases, the number of energy sub-levels per
energy level increases.
• The first 94 elements of the periodic table are naturally occurring, while the rest from 95
to 118 have only been synthesized in laboratories or nuclear reactors.
• The modern periodic table, the one we use now, is a new and improved version of certain
models put forth by scientists in the 19th and 20th century.
• The periodic table is organized by atomic number, from the element with the lowest
atomic number, hydrogen, to the element with the highest atomic number, oganesson.
 Periodic Table Cont.

What is the Periodic Table? Why is Periodic Table Made?

• The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of
that element. Hydrogen has 1 proton, and oganesson has 118.
• Dimitri Mendeleev put forward his periodic table based on the findings of some scientists
before him like John Newlands and Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier. However, Mendeleev is
given sole credit for his development of the periodic table.
• The creator of the periodic table, Dimitri Mendeleev , in 1869 began collecting and
sorting known properties of elements, like he was playing a game, while traveling by
train. He noticed that there were groups of elements that exhibited similar properties,
but he also noticed that there were plenty of exceptions to the emerging patterns.
• Incredibly, instead of giving up, he tried altering the measured property values to better
fit the patterns! He also predicted that certain elements must exist which didn’t at the
time – again, in an effort to get the patterns in his "game" to work out.
• There were plenty of skeptics and it took years to gain international acceptance, but once
newly-discovered elements matched the ones that Mendeleev predicted, his patterns
could not be dismissed. In addition, some of the properties that he "fudged" were later
recalculated and found to be much closer to his predictions.
 Periodic Trends
The specific patterns in the properties of chemical elements present in the periodic table
are known as periodic trends. The important trends are,
1. Ionization energy
2. Metallic character
3. Atomic Radii
4. Electronegativity
5. Ionic radius
6. Electron affinity
7. Chemical reactivity
8. Shielding effect
Periodic Law
• Periodic law forms the basis for periodic trends. According to periodic law, “the chemical
elements are listed in an order of increasing atomic number, and main properties thus
undergo cyclic changes. Elements having similar chemical properties re-occur in regular
intervals”
• This principle was given by Dmitri Mendeleev. He also stated that the periodic table was
not just based on the atomic weights, but also based on various physical and chemical
properties of elements.
• Later it was also found that the recurrence of properties was due to the recurrence of
similar electronic configurations in the outer shells of atoms.
 Facts Based on the Period Trends and Periodic Tables

• Most noble gases- helium(He), neon(Ne), argon(Ar), krypton(Kr), xenon(Xe), and

radon(Rn)- have zero electronegativity because they are extremely stable. They have full
valence electronic layers due to which they do not lose or gain electrons easily.
• Out of the 118 elements of the periodic table, 90 can be found in nature while the rest 28
are completely man-made.
• While hydrogen(H) is the lightest element present in the periodic table (can be found in
the top left corner), oganesson (Og) is the heaviest element (can be found in the lower
right corner)
• Almost 75% of elements in the periodic table are metals. While there are only a few non-
metals.
• The only two elements that are liquid at room temperature are bromine and mercury.
• If the periodic table is folded half along its group 4 elementsThe groups that lie on top of
each other can be fused with each other perfectly because they have harmonizing
electron structure. Hence, they fit together in complete stability.