Consumer Behaviour Chapter 1

An Introduction to Consumer
Behaviour

1
 An Introduction to Consumer Behaviour
• What is Marketing?
• What is Consumer Behaviour?
• What is Market Segmentation?
• Relationship Marketing
• Database Marketing
• The Meaning of Consumption
• The Global Consumer
• Marketing Impact on Consumers
• Consumer Research

2
 What is Marketing?
• According to the American Marketing
Association – “marketing is the process of
planning and executing the conception,
pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas,
goods and services to create exchanges that
satisfy individual and organizational
objectives”.
– Marketing is MORE than selling.
– 4p’s: Product, Price, Promotion, and Placement
– At the core of the marketing concept is the
consumer, with his needs and wants. 3
What
What is
is Consumer
Consumer Behaviour?
Behaviour?
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behaviourisisthe
thestudy
studyofofthe
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orgroups
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disposeofofproducts,
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segments.
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 What is Market Segmentation?
• Marketing Segmentation – identifies groups of
consumers who are similar to one another in one
or more ways, and then devises marketing
strategies that appeal to one or more groups. It’s
an important aspect of consumer behaviour.
• Consumers can be segmented along many
dimensions including product usage,
demographics (age, gender, family structure,
social class and income, ethnicity, and geography)
and psychographics (psychological and lifestyle
characteristics).
5
 Relationship Marketing
• Relationship Marketing – the process of creating, maintaining, and
enhancing strong, value-laden relationships with customers;
interacting with consumers on a regular basis, giving them reasons
to maintain a bond with the company over time.
• The importance of relationship marketing means that marketers are
much more attuned to the wants and needs of different consumer
groups over the long term. This is especially important as people
are empowered to construct their own consumer space – accessing
product information where and when they want and initiating
contact with companies online instead of passively receiving
marketing communications. In addition, consumers can be though
as role players who need different products to help them play their
various parts.
6
 Database Marketing
• Database Marketing – the process of
creating a database of customers and their
purchases through tracking programs, and
then customizing marketing appeals to suit
these different customers.

7
 The Meaning of Consumption
• One of the most fundamental premises of the modern
field of consumer behaviour is that people often buy
products not for what products do, but for what they
mean to them.
– Self-concept attachment - the product helps to establish the user’s
identity
– Nostalgic attachment - the product serves as a link with a past self
– Interdependence - the product is part of the user’s daily routine
– Love - the product elicits emotional bonds with warmth, passion or
another strong emotion.

8
 The Global Consumer
• The Web transformed the way consumers interact
with companies and with each other.
• Advantages: Online commerce allows us to locate
obscure products from around the world, and
consumption communities provide forums for
people to share opinions and product
recommendations.
• Potential Problems: Loss of privacy and
deterioration of traditional social interactions as
people log more time online.
9
Marketing
Marketing Impact
Impact on
on Consumers
Consumers
Marketing activities exert an
enormous impact on individuals.
Consumer behavior is relevant to our
understanding of both public policy
issues (e.g., ethical marketing practices)
and the dynamics of popular culture.

Marketing Public
Public
Marketing
Ethics Policy
Policy
Ethics

Popular
Popular Global
Global
Culture
Culture Marketing
Marketing

10
 Marketing and Culture
• Popular culture, consisting of the music, movies,
sports, books, celebrities and other forms of
entertainment consumed by the mass market, is
both a product of and an inspiration for marketers.
• Consumer-generated content is an important part
of marketing’s influence on culture (i.e,
Facebook).

11
 Marketing Ethics
• In business, conflicts often arise between
the goal of succeeding in the marketplace
and the desire to conduct business honestly
and to maximize the wellbeing of
consumers by providing them with safe and
effective products and services.

12
 Business Ethics and Ethical
Standards of Conduct
• Business Ethics – the rules of conduct that guide actions in
the marketplace; the standards against which most people
in a culture judge what is right or wrong.
Some Guidelines
• Disclosure of all substantial risks associated with a
product or a service
• Identification of added features that will increase cost
• Avoidance of false or misleading advertising
• Rejection of high-pressure or misleading sales tactics
• Prohibition of selling or fundraising under the guise of
conducting marketing research.
13
 Public Policy and Consumerism
• The welfare of the consumer is protected by many laws at
the federal, provincial, and municipal levels.
• Consumer behavior can have a “dark side,” which includes
outcomes such as addictive consumption, compulsive
behavior, and illegal activities.

• Social Marketing - refers to using marketing techniques

normally employed to sell products to encourage positive
behaviors. E. g. – public service announcements which
advocate changes in behaviour such as quitting smoking or
abstaining from drinking and driving.
14
 Addictive Consumption
• Consumer addiction is a physiological and/or
psychological dependency on products or services
(such as alcohol, drugs and cigarettes) and many
companies profit from selling addictive products
or by selling solutions to addiction.
• “Everyone is a potential addict - they’re are just
waiting for their drug of choice to come along,
whether heroin, running, junk food or social
media.”
– A survey reported that one in three smartphone users
would rather give up sex than their phones.
15
 Compulsive Consumption
– Some consumers shop because they feel compelled to
do so rather than because shopping is a pleasurable or
functional task.

• Compulsive consumption is the process of

repetitive, often excessive, shopping used to
relieve tension, anxiety, depression, or boredom.

– “Shopaholics turn to shopping in much the same way as

those with addictions turn to drugs or alcohol.

16
 Illegal Activities
• In North America, a retail theft is committed every five
seconds.
– Shrinkage is the loss of money or inventory due to
shoplifting and/or employee theft. This is a massive
problem for businesses, and the cost is passed on to
consumers in the form of higher prices. Most people
who shoplift are doing it for the thrill of it or as a
substitute for affection.
– Another growing form of fraud is the abuse of
exchange and return policies.
• Anticonsumption – the actions taken by consumers that
involve the deliberate defacement or mutilation of
products (it’s a type of destructive consumer behaviour).
17
 Consumer Research
• Marketers often wish to find out about consumers’
attitudes, opinions, behaviors and preferences because by
understanding he consumer, the marketer is best able to
appeal to relevant needs. To this end, marketers often
engage in various forms of consumer (marketing) research.
– Secondary research – refers to research that has been conducted by
another party and can be applied to the research question at hand
(literature reviews, content analysis).
– Primary research – when the data is collected by the researcher
specifically for the research question at hand (survey research,
focus groups, interviews, observational research, experimental
research).

18
Consumer Behaviour as Field of Study
• The field of consumer behaviour is
interdisciplinary; it is composed of researchers
from many fields who share an interest in how
people interact with the marketplace.

• The positivist perspective (which dominates the

field) in contrast to a interpretivist perspective
emphasizes the objectivity of science and the
consumer as a rational decision maker.

19
Taking it from here: the book and the course follow the Engel,
Kollat and Blackwell (EKB) Model, a comprehensive model of
consumer behaviour that describe relationships between
variables that may influence behavior as well as emphasizing
that consumer behavior is a dynamic ongoing process.

20
Consumer Behaviour Chapter 2

Perception

21
 Agenda
• The Perceptual Process
• Sensory System
• Exposure: Sensory Thresholds
• Weber’s Law
• Perception as a sequential process:
– Exposure: Subliminal Perception
– Attention
– Interpretation
22
 Introduction
• Sensation – the immediate response of
sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose, mouth,
fingers) to such basic stimuli as light,
colour, and sound.
• Perception – the process by which stimuli
(sights, sounds, and smells) are selected,
organized, and interpreted. Perception is a
three-stage process (exposure, attention,
and interpretation) that translates raw
stimuli into meaning.
• The eventual interpretation of a stimulus
allows it to be assigned meaning. 23
 The
The Perceptual
Perceptual Process
Process
1.
1.Exposure
Exposure

Sensation
Sensation

Sensory
Sensory 3.
Receptors
2.
2.Attention
Attention 3.Interpretation
Interpretation
STIMULI

Receptors

Meaning
Meaning
Eyes
Ears Response
Response
Nose
Sights Mouth
Sounds Skin
Smells
Tastes Perception
Perception
Textures
24
 Sensory Systems
• Marketing stimuli have important sensory
qualities. We rely on colours, odours, sounds,
tastes, and even the “feel” of products when
forming evaluations of them.
• Not all sensations make their way successfully
through the perceptual process. Many stimuli
compete for our attention, and the majority are not
noticed or accurately comprehended.

25
 Sensory
Sensory Systems
Systems

Vision
Vision Sound
Sound

Smell
Smell Touch
Touch

Taste
Taste

26
 Vision
• Colour provokes emotion • Trade dress: colours
• Reaction to colour is associated with specific
both biological and companies
cultural • Colour in packaging
design is critical
 Vision and Colour
• Colours influence emotions
• Some colours (red) create feelings of arousal and
stimulate appetites
• Blue is more relaxing
• Older people see colours in a dull cast and
therefore prefer white and other bright tones.
Mature consumers are likely to choose a white car;
in fact Lexus makes 60% of their vehicles in
white
 Smell
• Scents stir emotion or create
calm feelings
• Episodic memories of a pie
out of the oven or a steaming
cup of coffee…feelings of
home
• One study found the smell of
fresh cinnamon buns induced
sexual arousal in males
• Scent marketing: from cars
to fragrances
 Hearing
• Sound affects behaviour: airline passengers move
to their seats faster with an up-tempo playing
• Individual sounds called phonemes might be more
or less preferred by customers ( an i- sound would
be lighter than an a-sound)
• Muzak uses sound and music to create a mood
• High tempo = more stimulation
• Slower tempo= more relaxing
• Muzak in factories can reduce absenteeism
 Touch
• Heptic senses: touch is the
most basic of senses; we
learn this before vision
and smell
• Touching affects the
product experience
• Waiters who touch patrons
get bigger tips
• Touching an item forms a
relationship with the
product
 Taste
• Our taste receptors obviously contribute to our
experiences of many products, and people form
strong preferences for certain flavours.
• Cultural changes determine desirable tastes

• Individuals test the heat of hot peppers

• Wine enthusiasts taste hundreds of wines
 1. Exposure
• Exposure – an initial stage of perception where some
sensations come within range of consumers’ sensory receptors.
• People have different thresholds of perception. A stimulus
must be presented at a certain level of intensity before it can
get detected by an individual’s sensory reception. In addition,
a consumer’s ability to detect whether two stimuli are different
(the differential threshold) is an important issue in marketing
contexts such as changing a package design, altering the size
of a product, or reducing its price.
• JND (just noticeable difference) – the minimum change in a
stimulus that can be detected by a perceiver (Application:
discount merchandise or when the price increases or a product
is downsized).
33
 Weber’s
Weber’s Law
Law
• The stronger the initial stimulus, the greater its
change must be for the change to be noticed

I = the minimal change in

I
intensity of the stimulus
required to be just
k = noticeable to the person
(j.n.d.)
I
k = the constant increase or decrease I = the intensity of the stimulus
necessary for the stimulus to be before the change occurs
noticed (this varies across the senses)

34
 Exposure
• In recent years, the sensory experiences we get from
products and services have become even more important
when choosing among competing options. Consumers
increasingly want to buy things that will give them
hedonic value in addition to functional value.
• Facilitating effective consumer perception is a central goal
from marketers.
• Factors that determine which stimuli get perceived are the
amount of exposure to the stimulus, how much attention it
generates, and how it is interpreted. In an increasingly
crowded stimulus environment, advertising clutter occurs
when too many marketing-related messages compete for
attention.
35
 Exposure:
Exposure: Subliminal
Subliminal Perception
Perception
Controversy
Controversy hashas been
been sparked
sparked by by so-called
so-called subliminal
subliminal
persuasion
persuasion and
and related
related techniques,
techniques, by by which
which people
people are
are
exposed
exposed toto visual
visual and
and audio
audio messages
messages below
below thethe
threshold
threshold of
of perception
perception (below
(below the
the level
level of
of the
the
consumer’s
consumer’s awareness).
awareness). Although
Although evidence
evidence of of subliminal
subliminal
persuasion’s
persuasion’s effectiveness
effectiveness is is virtually
virtually nonexistent,
nonexistent, manymany
consumers
consumers continue
continue to to believe
believe that
that advertisers
advertisers useuse this
this
technique.
technique.
Three
Three subliminal
subliminal techniques:
techniques:
•• Embeds
Embeds –– tiny
tiny figures
figures that
that are
are inserted
inserted into
into magazine
magazine
advertising
advertising byby using
using high-speed
high-speed photography
photography or or
airbrushing.
airbrushing.
•• Auditory
Auditory messages
messages
•• Rapid
Rapid visual
visual exposure
exposure 36
 CB Chapter 3

Learning and Memory

37
 Agenda
• The Learning Process
• Marketing Applications
• The Memory Process
• Memory Systems
• Retrieving Information

38
 The Learning Process
• It is important for marketers to understand
how consumers learn about products and
services.
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in
a behaviour, caused by experience. Learning
can occur through simple associations
between a stimulus and a response or via a
complex series of cognitive activities.
• Learning is a continuous process.
39
 I.I. Behavioural
Behavioural Learning
Learning Theories
Theories
Conditioning results in learning.
Behavioural learning theories - assume that learning occurs
as the result of responses to external events. This view is
represented by two major approaches to learning:
classical conditioning and operant (instrumental)
conditioning.

1. Classical Conditioning – is the learning that occurs

when a stimulus that naturally elicits a response (an
unconditioned stimulus) is paired with another stimulus
that initially does not elicit a response on its own, but it
will cause a similar response over the time because of its
association with the first stimulus.
- Pavlov

40
 Classical Conditioning
Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the
conditioned and unconditioned stimuli have been paired
a number of times (repetition).

Extinction – a learned connection between a stimulus and

a response is eroded so that the response is no longer
reinforced.

Stimulus generalization – the behavior caused by a

reaction to one stimulus occurs in the presence of
other, similar stimuli.

Stimulus discrimination – behaviour caused by two stimuli

is different, as when consumers learn to differentiate a
brand from its competitors.

41
 Applications of Classical
Conditioning
Brand Equity – a brand that has strong positive
associations in consumer’s memory and commands a
lot of loyalty as a results.

Applications of stimulus generalization:

- family branding
- product line extensions
- licensing
- look-alike packaging.

Applications of stimulus discrimination:

- promoting the unique attribute of their brands

42
 2. Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning = Instrumental Conditioning - the
process by which an individual learns to perform behaviours that
produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative
outcomes. While classical conditioning involves the pairing of two
stimuli, instrumental learning occurs when reinforcement is
delivered following a response to a stimulus.

- Skinner
• Positive Reinforcement – rewards provided by the
environment strengthen responses to stimuli
• Negative Reinforcement – environment weakens responses to
stimuli so that inappropriate behaviour is avoided.
• Punishment – the learning that occurs when a response is
followed by unpleasant events.
• Extinction of the behavior will occur if reinforcement is no
longer received.

Applications
- frequency marketing – reinforces regular purchasers
by giving them prizes with values that increase along with the43
amount purchased.
 II. Cognitive Learning Theory
Observation of other’s behavior can result in learning.

Cognitive Learning Theory - stresses the importance of

internal mental process.

Cognitive Learning
• Consciousness – with a clear purpose
• Observation – watch others
• Modeling – imitating the behaviour of others

Observational learning – people learn by watching the actions

of others and noting the reinforcements they receive for
their behavior.
Applications
- product demonstrations
- ads showing people telling their stories

44
 The Memory Process
• Memory refers to the storage of learned
information. The way the information is encoded
when it is perceived determines how it will be
stored in memory.
• Memory - involves a process of acquiring
information and storing it over time so that it will
be available when needed.
– Encoding – information from short-term memory is
entered into long-term memory in a recognizable from
– Storage – knowledge entered in long-term memory is
integrated with what is already in memory and
“warehoused” until needed.
– Retrieval – desired information is accessed from long-
term memory.
45
The
The Memory
Memory Process
Process
External
External Inputs
Inputs

Encoding
Encoding
Information
Informationis
is
Placed
PlacedininMemory
Memory

Storage
Storage
Information
Information
is
isRetained
Retainedin
inMemory
Memory

Retrieval
Retrieval
Information
InformationStored
Stored
in
inMemory
MemoryisisFound
FoundasasNeeded
Needed 46
 Memory Systems
• Information-processing perspective
• Information is not stored in isolation; it is incorporated
into knowledge structures where it is associated with other
related data. The way the information is encoded when it is
perceived determines how it will be stored in memory. The
memory systems known as sensory memory, short-term
memory and long-term memory each play a role in
retaining and processing information from the outside
world.
– Sensory Memory – the temporary storage of information
received from the senses.
– Short-term Memory – the system that allows us to retain
information for a short period of time.
– Long-term memory – the system that allows us to retain
47
information for a long period of time.
Memory
Memory Systems
Systems
Sensory
Sensory Memory
Memory

Attention
Attention gate

Short-Term
Short-Term Memory
Memory

Elaborative
Elaborative Rehearsal
Rehearsal

Long-Term
Long-Term Memory
Memory
48
 Memory
• Sensory Memory
• Very Short Term
What things do you forget very quickly?

• Short Term Memory - RAM

• Acoustical Storage vs Semantic Storage

• Long Term Memory

What makes some things more "memorable"?
• Elaborative Rehearsal
How do we go about deep processing
of concepts, ideas, products?

49
 Retrieving
Retrieving Information
Information
The location of product information in associative networks and the
level of abstraction at which it is encoded help to determine when
and how this information will be activated at a later time.
Retrieval is the process whereby information is accessed from long-
term memory. Some factors that influence the likelihood of retrieval
include:
• Familiarity – prior familiarity enhances recall. What's it like that
you already know? What "hangers" do you have in your mind
on which you can hang up a new idea?
• Salience – salience increases recall. How much does it stick
out in your mind as being important?
• Pictorial/verbal Cues – pictorial ads may enhance recall, but
they do not necessarily enhance comprehension. Easier to
remember what it looks like (most of us are visual learners).
• State-dependent Retrieval – people are better able to access
information if their internal state is the same at the time of recall
as it was when it was learned = mood congruence. Why we 50
hold exams in the same room as class.
 Forgetting is caused by
• Decay - when we don't use something, we forget it
– Example?
What product did you used to buy
that you've forgotten about?
Is this a trick question??
How are you supposed to answer this?!
• Interference – a process whereby additional
learned information displaces the earlier
information, resulting in memory loss for the item
learned previously.

51
 Marketing Strategies
• Products help us to retrieve memories from
the past
• Products also play a role as memory
markers; they are used by consumers to
retrieve memories about past experiences
(autobiographical memories) and are often
valued for their ability to do so.
• This function also contributes to the use of
nostalgia in marketing strategies.
52
 Measuring Memory for Marketing Stimuli

• Marketers measure our memories about products and ads.

• Memory of product information can be measured through
either recognition or recall techniques.
• Recognition versus recall
– Recognition – people are shown ads one at a time and asked if they have
seen it before
– Recall – people are asked to think independently of what they have seen,
without being prompted for this information first.
• Consumers are more likely to recognize an advertisement if it is
presented to them than to recall one without having any cues.
• Recall = Preference? Neither recognition nor recall automatically translates
into product purchases.

53
CB Chapter 4

Motivation and Affect

54
 Agenda
• Motivation
• Needs vs. Wants
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Involvement
• Affect

55
 The
The Motivation
Motivation Process
Process
Motivation is about finding out what your customers really need (and
want and the difference between those two concepts) and what they
are willing to do to get it. It's also about finding out how much you, as
the marketer, are willing to do to satisfy those customers.
To understand motivation is to understand why consumers do what
they do.
Marketers
Marketerstrytryto
tosatisfy
satisfyconsumer
consumerneeds,
needs,but
butthe
thereasons
reasonsanyany
product
productisispurchased
purchasedcan canvary
varywidely.
widely.The
Theidentification
identificationof
ofconsumer
consumer
motives
motivesisisananimportant
importantstep
stepin
inensuring
ensuringthat
thatthe
theappropriate
appropriateneeds
needs
will
willbe
bemet
metby byaaproduct.
product.Traditional
Traditionalapproaches
approachestotoconsumer
consumer
behavior
behaviorhave
havefocused
focusedononthe
theabilities
abilitiesof
ofproducts
productsto tosatisfy
satisfyrational
rational
needs
needs(utilitarian
(utilitarianmotives),
motives),but
buthedonic
hedonicneeds
needs(such
(suchasasthe
theneed
needforfor
exploration
explorationor orfun)
fun)also
alsoplay
playaarole
roleininmany
manypurchase
purchasedecisions.
decisions.
56
 Motivational Strength
• Motivation – an internal state that activates goal-
oriented behaviour.
• Goal – a consumer’s desired end state.
• Drive – the desire to satisfy a biological need in
order to reduce physiological arousal.
• Drive theory – focuses on biological needs that
produce unpleasant states of arousal (such as
your stomach grumbling during an evening
class)
• Expectancy theory - suggests that behaviour is
largely pulled by expectations of achieving
desirable outcomes – positive incentives –
rather than pushed from within.
57
 Motivational Direction
• Needs Versus Wants
• Want – the particular form of consumption used to
satisfy a need.

• Types of Needs
• Biogenic (food, water, air, sleep, sex, shelter)
• Psychogenic (dominance, superiority, emotional
stability, etc)
• Utilitarian vs. hedonic

• Motivational Conflict
• Approach-approach
• Approach-avoidance
• Avoidance-avoidance
58
Levels of Needs in the Maslow Hierarchy

4 - 59
 Needs
• As demonstrated by Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs, the same product can satisfy
different needs depending on the
consumer’s state at the time (i.e., whether
basic physiological needs have already been
satisfied). In addition to his or her objective
situation, the consumer’s degree of
involvement must also be considered.
60
 Consumer
Consumer Involvement
Involvement
The
The way
way we
we evaluate
evaluate and
and choose
choose aa product
product depends
depends on
on
our
our degree
degree of
of involvement
involvement with
with the
the product,
product, the
the
marketing
marketing message,
message, and/or
and/or the
the purchase
purchase situation.
situation.
Involvement
Involvement -- isisaaperson’s
person’sperceived
perceivedrelevance
relevanceof
ofthe
the
“object”
“object” based
basedonontheir
theirinherent
inherentneeds,
needs,values
valuesand
andinterests.
interests.
Involvement
Involvementisisalso
alsothe
themotivation
motivationto
toprocess
processInformation.
Information.

Low Involvement
InvolvementConsumption
ConsumptionContinuum
Continuum High
- Simple Processing - Elaboration
- Inertia - Passionate
Intensity
Product involvement can range from very low, in which
purchase decisions are made by inertia (habit), to very high, in
which consumers have very strong bonds with what they buy.
61
 Types
Types of
of Involvement
Involvement
In addition to considering the degree to which consumers are
involved with a product, marketing strategists need to assess the
extent of involvement with marketing messages and with the
purchase situation.

Message-
Message-
Products/
Products/ response
response
Services
Services Involvement
Involvement
Involvement
Involvement

Purchase
Purchase
Situation
Situation
Involvement
Involvement 62
 Involvement
Involvement
Components
Components of of Involvement
Involvement
-- Cognitive
Cognitive (what
(what we
we think,
think, how
how we we compare
compare products,
products,
evaluate
evaluate products,
products, etc.)
etc.)
-- Affective
Affective (what
(what we we are
are or
or feel)
feel)
Segmenting
Segmenting by by Involvement
Involvement (low(low involvement
involvement –– focus
focus on
on
the
the affect
affect –– make
make people
people like
like itit ;; high
high involvement
involvement ––
provide
provide facts)
facts)
Strategies
Strategies toto Increase
Increase Involvement
Involvement
Use
UseNovel
Novel Use
UseProminent
Prominent
Use
UseHedonic
Hedonic Stimuli
Stimuli Stimuli
Stimuli
Appeals
Appeals

Use
UseCelebrity
Celebrity Build
Build
Endorsers
Endorsers Relationships
Relationships 63
 Affect
• The way we interpret, evaluate, and choose products
can also depend on our current affective state.
• Affect refers to the experience of emotionally-laden
states, which can range from evaluations, to moods,
to full-blown emotions.
• Moods involve temporary positive or negative
affective states accompanied by moderate levels of
arousal.
• Emotions (happiness, anger, fear, etc.) in contrast to
moods, tend to be more intense and are often related
to a specific triggering event.
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 Discrete Emotions
• Discrete emotions such as happiness, envy, guilt, and
embarrassment can influence a variety of decisions.
• Happiness – is a mental state of well-being characterized
by positive emotions.
– Material goods are not the secret to happiness
– How we spend our money can influence happiness –
spending on others leads to more happiness
– Fostering social connections with the people who are
important to us might be the secret to happiness
– What makes us happy can vary throughout the lifespan

65
 Discrete Emotions
• Envy – is a negative emotion associated with the
desire to reduce the gap between oneself and
someone who is superior on some dimension –
“keeping up with the Joneses”
• Guilt – is defined as “an individual’s unpleasant
emotional state associated with possible objections
to his or her actions, inaction, circumstances, or
intentions”
– guilt appeals
• Embarrassment – is a social emotion driven by a
concern for what others are thinking about us.
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CB Chapter 5

The Self

67
 Agenda
• Perspectives of Self
• Self Concept
• Consumption and the Self-Concept
• Gender and Socialization
• Body Image
• Decoration and Mutilation Purposes

68
 Perspectives of Self
• We buy products to highlight/hide aspects of the self
• Eastern and Western cultures see the self as a an inner
private self and the outer public self.
• In the era of Facebook and Twitter everyone is able to
share their thoughts with millions of friends and strangers
• Each of us is a separate, unique individual

– Think about it: Do you behave differently in a group than

with just a single friend?

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 Self
Self Concept
Concept
The
The Self
Self Concept
Concept –– the
the attitude
attitude aa person
person
holds
holds towards
towards himself
himself oror herself.
herself.
Self
Self Esteem
Esteem –– the
the positivity
positivity of
of one’s
one’s attitude
attitude
towards
towards oneself
oneself –– the
the self-esteem
self-esteem scale
scale
Multiple
Multiple selves
selves
Real
Real and
and Ideal
Ideal Selves
Selves // Public
Public vs
vs Private
Private
Ideal
Ideal self
self –– aa person’s
person’s conception
conception of of how
how
he
he or
or she
she would
would like
like to
to be
be
Actual
Actual self
self –– aa person’s
person’s realistic
realistic appraisal
appraisal
of
of his
his oror her
her qualities.
qualities.
Fantasy
Fantasy –– bridging
bridging thethe gap
gap between
between thethe 70
self
self
 Self-concept
• Consumers’ self-concepts are reflections of
their attitudes toward themselves. Whether
these attitudes are positive or negative, they
will help guide many purchase decisions;
products can be used to bolster self-esteem
or to “reward” the self.

71
 Symbolic Interactionism
how do other people affect who you are?

• Products often play a pivotal role in defining the self-

concept.
• Many products choices are dictated by the consumer’s
perception of a similarity between his or her personality
and the attributes of a product.
• The symbolic interactionist perspective on the self states
that each of us actually has many selves, and a different set
of products is required as props to play each role. Many
things other than the body can also be viewed as part of the
self. Valued objects, cars, homes, and even attachments to
sport teams or national monuments are used to define the
self when these are incorporated into the extended self.
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 The Looking-Glass Self
- how do you imagine the reaction of others to your behaviour?

• The looking-glass self –

the process of imagining
the reaction of others towards oneself.
• Self-consciousness
– How are you sensitive to
how others see you?

• Self-monitoring

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 Symbolic Self-completion
Theory
• What have you bought to make up for what
you weren't?

• Symbolic Self-Completion Theory – the

perspective that people who have an incomplete
self-definition in some context will compensate by
acquiring symbols associated with a desired social
identity.
• Loss of self

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 Self-image Congruence Models
• What have you bought because "it's
you"?

• Self-image congruence models assume that

products will be chosen when their
attributes match some aspect of the self

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 The Extended Self
• What have you bought because you belong
to one of these?

• Extended self – the definition of self created by

the external objects with which one surrounds
oneself.
– Four levels of extended self are used by consumers to
define themselves
• Individual level
• Family level
• Community level
• Group level. 76
 The Digital Self
• Modify profile photos posted on Facebook or the
descriptions people share on dating sites
• Additional identities in the form of avatars in virtual
worlds like World of Warcraft; Americans spend billions to
buy virtual goods for their avatars
• “You are what you wear” became “you are what you post”
• virtual makeover technologies make it even easier for
consumers to involve the digital self as we choose
products to adorn to our physical selves

• Wearable computing – big health implications

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 Gender
Gender Roles
Roles and
and differences
differences in
in
Socialization
Socialization
Social
Social Assumptions
Assumptions
Gender
Gender
or
or
MEN
MEN WOMEN
WOMEN

Gender
• Trait
• Products
• Androgyny
• Roles

78
This ad from 1953 is definitely aimed at women.
 Gender Roles
• Gender-role identity is different from gender, and
society’s expectations of masculinity and
femininity help to determine the products we buy.
• A person’s gender-role identity is a major
component of self-definition. Conceptions about
masculinity and femininity, largely shaped by
society, guide the acquisition of “sex-typed”
products and services.
• Androgyny refers to the possession of both
masculine and feminine traits.

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 Gender Roles
• Advertising and other media play an important
role in socializing consumers to be male and
female.
• Although traditional women’s roles have often
been perpetuated in advertising depictions, this
situation is changing somewhat.
• The media do not always portray men
accurately, either.

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 Female and Male Roles
• Gender roles vary by culture
but are changing
• Younger women’s views of
themselves are quite different
from those of their mothers
and grandmothers.
• Many societies still expect
traditional roles:
– Agenic roles: Men are
expected to be assertive
and have certain skills
– Communal roles: Women
are taught to foster
harmonious relationships
 Gender Versus Sexual Identity
• Gender-role identity is a state of mind as
well as body
• A person’s biological gender (i.e., male or
female) does not totally determine whether
he or she will exhibit sex-typed traits, or
characteristics stereotypically associated
with one gender or the other.
• A consumer’s subjective feelings about his
or her sexuality are crucial as well.
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 LGBT Consumers
• The proportion of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and
Transgender consumers is difficult to determine
• 2016 Census in Canada – the number of reported same-sex
couples in Canada was 72880 – but is likely that the true
number is much higher.
• Gay consumers are almost 12 times more likely to hold
professional jobs than heterosexual consumers, twice as
likely to own a vacation home, and eight times more likely
to own a notebook computer; twice as likely to have
attended graduate school, more concerned about physical
fitness and self-improvement, more likely to be self-
employed.
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 Body Image
• The way we think about our bodies (and the way our
culture tells us we should think about them) is a key
component of self-esteem.
• A person’s conception of his or her body also provides
feedback to self-image. A culture communicates
certain ideals of beauty, and consumers go to great
lengths to attain these.
• Sometimes these activities are carried to an extreme
when people try too hard to live up to cultural ideals.
One example is found in eating disorders, wherein
women in particular become obsessed with thinness.
5 - 84
 Body
Body Image
Image
Body
Body Image
Image –– aa consumer’s
consumer’s subjective
subjective evaluation
evaluation
of
of his
his or
or her
her physical
physical self
self

Working on
Body the Body
Cathexis
Ideals of
Beauty

Body
Body Cathexis
Cathexis –– aa person’s
person’s feelings
feelings about
about aspects
aspects of
of his
his
or
or her
her body.
body.
Ideal
Ideal of
of Beauty
Beauty -- aa model,
model, or
or exemplar,
exemplar, of
of appearance
appearance
valued
valued byby aa culture.
culture. 85
 The Western Ideal
• Every culture dictates certain types of body decoration
and/or mutilation that help to identify its members.
• Many consumer activities involve manipulating the body,
whether through dieting, cosmetic surgery, or tattooing.
– Skin color and eye shape = status, sophistication, and
social desirability
– Less powerful cultures adopt standards of beauty in
Waist-Hip Ratio dominant cultures
– Plastic surgery to obtain big round eyes, tiny waists,
large breasts, blond hair, and blue eyes
 Ideals of Beauty Over Time
• Specific “looks”/ideals of beauty
– Early 1800s: delicate/looking ill appearance, 18-inch
waistline (use of corsets)
– 1890s: voluptuous, lusty woman
• Bad economy: mature features vs. good economy: babyish
features
– 1990s: “waif” look
• Modern women: high heels, body waxing, eyelifts, liposuction
– Media and marketing communicate standards of beauty
– Plus-sized apparel market
– Strongly masculine, muscled body for men
Decoration
Decoration and
and Mutilation
Mutilation Purposes
Purposes
Body decoration and/or mutilation may serve such functions as
separating group members from non-group members, or marking
the individual’s status or rank within a social organization or within
a gender category (e.g., homosexual), or even providing a sense of
security or good luck.
- Group Membership
- Social Hierarchy
- Gender Category
- Gender-Role Identification
- Sense of Security
- Desired Social Conduct
- Status or Rank

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