THE CELL CYCLE
Introduction
• One of the
characteristic
of living things
is the ability to
reproduce and
pass on genetic
information to
the next
generation
Cell cycle
• sequence of events
by which a cell
duplicates its
genome,
synthesises the
other constituents
of the cell and
eventually divides
into 2 daughter
cells
• events that
produce new cells
Cell cycle
• Cell growth uses
genetic
information in DNA
to manufacture
structural and
functional proteins
needed for survival
• Cell reproductive
ensures transfer of
genetic
information
Introduction
Phases of cell cycle
• The cell cycle is divided into 2
basic phases:
•Interphase
•M Phase (Mitosis phase)
Cell cycle
• Interphase is subdivided into 3 phases:
• G1 (presynthesis) - the time gap between
mitosis and the beginning of DNA
replication
• S (DNA synthesis) - the period of DNA
synthesis
• G2 (post-DNA duplication) - the gap
between DNA duplication and the next
mitosis
• As new postmitotic cells specialize and
differen_x0002_tiate, cell cycle activities
may be temporarily or permanently
Cell cycle
• S phase; characterized by
synthesis of DNA and the
beginning of duplications of
centrosomes.
• G1 phase; intense synthesis of
RNA and proteins, including
proteins that control the cell
cycle.
Cell cycle
• Cells that are not continuously
dividing, activities of cell cycle
may be temporarily (facultative
division) or permanently
suspended.
• Cells in such a state (e.g.
muscle, nerve) are referred to
as being in the G0 phase
Cell cycle
.
Mitosis phase
M phase
(mitosis);
consists of 4
phases
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
Cell cycle Regulation
• Regulation of the mammalian cell
cycle is complex
• It is a highly ordered and tightly
regulated process that causes an
irreversible and unidirectional
change in cell state
Cell cycle Regulation
• Cell division is tightly controlled by
complexes made of several specific
proteins.
• The complexes contain enzymes
called cyclin-dependent kinases
(CDKs), which turn on or off the
various processes that take place
in cell division.
• CDK partners with a family of
proteins called cyclins.
Cell cycle Regulation
• a cell passes through 3 check
points: the G1 checkpoint, G2
checkpoint, and the M-spindle
checkpoint.
• At each of the checkpoints, the cell
checks that it has completed all of
the tasks needed and is ready to
proceed to the next step in its
cycle
Types of Cell division
• 2 types of cell division
• Mitosis; somatic cell division
• Meiosis; reproductive cell
division
Mitosis
• Somatic cells undergo mitosis and
cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) to
produce 2 identical cells each with the
same number and kind of chromosomes
as the original cell.
• Traits of an individual are determined by
specific genes on chromosomes
• Somatic cells, chromosomes appear as 23
homologous pairs (diploid); 22 pairs of
matching chromosomes autosomes, and one
pair of sex chromosomes XX is genetically
female; XY, is genetically male.
Mitosis
• they contain similar genes
arranged in the same order.
• Somatic cell division replaces
dead cells and adds new ones
during tissue growth.
Mitosis
• Interphase; period between cell
divisions
• Towards the end of interphase,
chromatin replicates and
becomes tightly coiled forming
double chromosomes called
chromatids which are joined at
the centromere
Mitosis
• has 4 stages—
• Prophase,
• Metaphase,
• Anaphase,
• Telophase;
• steps follow one another without
interruption.
Prophase (before phase)
• Nuclear envelope
disappears
• Paired chromatins coil
up to form dense
chromosomes
• Centriole pairs move
towards opposite ends
• mitotic apparatus
appears which consists
of 2 centrioles
separated by mitotic
spindle formed from
microtubules
Metaphase ‘position changing’
• Chromosomes are
moved by cytoskeleton
into an orderly pattern
• chromosomes line up in
the equatorial plane, and
their doubled structure
is clearly visible.
• Each is attached by
microtubules extending
from the centromere to
the centriole forming the
mitotic spindle.
Anaphase ‘apart’
• Centromes separate,
one of each pair of
sister chromatids
migrate to each pole
of the spindle as the
microtubules that
form mitotic spindle
contracts
Telophase
• Mitotic apparatus
disappears,
chromosomes uncoil
and nuclear
membrane reforms.
• After telophase,
cytoplasm and
plasma membrane
divide in half
forming 2 identical
daughter cells
Meiosis
• also known as reductional division.
• One diploid cell produces 4 haploid
cells.
• Meiosis occurs during the
formation of gametes
• Meiosis scrambles the specific
forms of each gene that each sex
cell (egg or sperm) receives
Meiosis
• Ensures genetic diversity
• Accomplished through
independent assortment and
crossing-over
• Genetic diversity is important
for the evolution of populations
and species
Meiosis
Parent cell – chromosome pair
Chromosomes
copied
1st division - pairs split
2nd division – produces 4
gamete cells with ½ the
original no. of chromosomes
Meiosis
• characteristic feature in meiosis is
that nucleus divides twice
successively.
• meiosis is conventionally divided
into
• 1st meiotic division (meiosis-I)
• 2nd meiotic division (meiosis II).
First meiotic division
Interphase
• Cell organelles
replicate, size of the
cell increases.
• DNA molecule
undergoes
replication.
• Each chromosome
exists as a pair of
chromatids joined
together by a
centromere.
Prophase 1
• DNA is exchanged
between homologous
chromosomes in a
process called
homologous
recombination, often
results in
chromosomal
crossover.
• The process of pairing
the homologous
chromosomes is called
synapsis.
Meiosis
Prophase 1
• longest duration and involves a series of
significant changes in the chromosomes.
described in 5 sub stages namely:
leptotene, zygotene, pachytene,
diplotene and diakinesis.
Meoisis 1 prophase
Leptotene
• Chromosomes shorten and become visible as single
structures.
Zygotene
• Paternal and maternal chromosomes come together
and pair up, pairing of homologous chromosmes is
called synapsis. paired chromosomes are described
as bivalents, the bivalents shorten and thicken
(spiralisation).
Prophase 1
Pachytene
• non-sister chromatids of paternal and
maternal chromosomes overlap each
other, appear to be joined at several
regions along their length, the points
are called Chiasmata.
Prophase 1
Pachytene
• Each chiasma is a site for exchange of
genetic material between the 2
chromatids, process is called genetic
recombination
Prophase 1
Diplotene
• chromosomes start separating.
• separation is called disjunction.
Prophase 1
Diakinesis
• Separation of the chromosomes is complete
with paternal and maternal chromosomes
having exchanged portions of chromatids.
• chromosomes condense again. chiasmata
disappear
Figure 13.7 The stages of meiotic cell division: Meiosis I
Metaphase-I
• Has a short duration,
chromosomes move towards
the equator of the cell and
come to lie in two parallel
metaphase plates. The 2
parallel plates are formed by
one set each of the
homologous chromosomes.
• Each homologous
chromosome has 2
kinetochores, one for each of
its two chromatids.
Anaphase 1
• is similar to anaphase in
mitosis except that each
chromosome consists of 2
chromatids that remain
held together.
• (2) Chromosomes migrate to
the poles.
• actual reduction in the
chromosome number (from
(2n) to (n)) occurs However,
each chromosome found at
the poles consists of two
chromatids.
Telophase-I
• chromosomes at each pole uncoil and
elongate to form the chromatin.
• nucleolus reappears at each pole.
Spindle fibres and asters disappear and
centrioles split.
• nuclear membrane is formed at each
pole resulting in the formation of two
daughter nuclei.
Cytokinesis - I
• Simultaneously with the formation of 2
daughter nuclei, a cleavage furrow
appears in the middle of the cell.
• furrows gradually deepen and divide
the cell into 2 daughter cells.
• stages of meiosis II are similar to those
of mitosis; thus the stages are named
similarly (prophase II, metaphase II,
anaphase II, and telophase II).
• (meiosis II) begins soon after the
completion of meiosis I, following a
brief interphase without DNA
replication
Meiosis II
• meant for separating the 2 chromatids of
each chromosomes.
• sister chromatids are portioned out among
the 2 daughter cells formed in meiosis I.
• The 2 daughter cells then divide, resulting in
the distribution of chromosomes into 4
daughter cells, each containing its own
unique recombined genetic material.
Clinical application
• Mitosis: malignant tumours
• Trisomy 21 - Down syndrome
The End
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