CODE OF ETHICS FOR

PROFESSIONAL ACCOUNTANTS
ISSUED BY INTERNATIONAL ETHICS STANDARDS BOARD OF ACCOUNTANTS JULY 2009 EFFECTIVE
JANUARY 01, 2011
 Introduction
A distinguishing mark of the accountancy
profession is its acceptance of the
responsibility to act in the public interest.

In acting in the public interest a

professional accountant should observe
and comply with the ethical requirement
of this Code
Quote to Ponder. . .

Success is always
temporary. When all
is said and done, the
only thing you will
have left is your
character. . .
The Code of Ethics

Sets the standards of

conduct for professional
accountants and states the
fundamental principles that
should be observed by
professional accountants in
order to achieve common
objectives.
 Division of the Code

 Part A – General Application of the Code

 Part B – Professional Accountants in Public Practice

 Part C – Professional Accountants in Business

 Part A: General Application of the Code

100 : Introduction and Fundamental Principles

110 : Integrity
120 : Objectivity
130 : Professional Competence and Due Care
140 : Confidentiality
150 : Professional Behavior
 Fundamental Principles

 Integrity
 Confidentiality
 Professional Competence and Due Care
 Objectivity
 Professional Behavior
 Fundamental Principles for
Professional Accountants

Integrity : straightforward and honest

Confidentiality : should not disclose information

acquired as a result of professional and business
relationship

Professional Competence and Due Care : continuing duty

to maintain professional knowledge and skill and should
act diligently when providing professional services
 Fundamental Principles for
Professional Accountants

Objectivity : should not allow bias or undue influence of

others to override professional or business judgments

Professional Behavior : should comply with relevant laws

and regulations and avoid any action that discredits the
profession
 Conceptual Framework

 Professional accountants are required to comply with the

fundamental ethical principles, and identify threats to
compliance with the fundamental principles, evaluate
their significance and, if such threats are other than
clearly insignificant, to apply safeguards to eliminate
them or reduce them to an acceptable level such that
compliance with the fundamental principles is not
compromised
 Conceptual Framework

 If appropriate safeguard cannot be implemented, the

professional accountant should decline or discontinue the
specific professional service involved, or where necessary
resign from the client or the employing organization

 In case of unusual circumstances where application of specific

requirement of the Code would result in a disproportionate
outcome or an outcome may not be in the public interest, it is
recommended that the professional accountant consult with a
member body or the relevant regulator
 Integrity

A professional accountant should not knowingly be associated

with reports, returns, communications or other information
where they believe that the information:
 Contains a materially false or misleading statement;
 Contains statement or information furnished recklessly; or
 Omits or obscures information required to be included
where such omission or obscurity would be misleading
 Objectivity

The principle of objectivity imposes an obligation on

all professional accountants not to compromise their
professional or business judgment because of bias,
conflict of interest or the undue influence of others.
 Professional Competence and Due Care

Professional accountants are obligated to:

 maintain professional knowledge and skill at
the level required to ensure that clients or
employers receive competent professional
service; and

 Act diligently in accordance with applicable

technical and professional standards when
providing professional services
 Confidentiality

The principle of confidentiality imposes an obligation on

professional accountants to refrain from:
 Disclosing confidential information acquired as a result of
professional and business relationships without proper and
specific authority or unless there is a legal or professional right
or duty to disclose; and

 Using confidential information acquired to their personal

advantage or the advantage of third parties
 Confidentiality

Circumstances where professional accountants may be

required to disclose:

If disclosure is permitted by law and is authorized by

the client or the employer;

If disclosure is required by law;

If there is a professional duty or right to disclose, when

not prohibited by law
 Professional Behavior

 The principle of professional behavior imposes an obligation on all

professional accountants to comply with relevant laws and

regulations and avoid any action that may discredit the
profession.

 This includes actions that a reasonable and informed third party,

weighing all the specific facts and circumstances available to the
professional accountant at that time, would be likely to conclude
adversely affects the good reputation of the profession.
 Professional Behavior

In marketing and promoting themselves and their work,

professional accountants should be honest and truthful
and should not:
make exaggerated claims for the services they are able to
offer, the qualifications they possess, or experience they
have gained; or

make disparaging references or unsubstantiated

comparisons to the work of others
 Threats
 Threats may be created by a broad range of relationships and
circumstances.

 When a relationship or circumstance creates a threat, such a

threat could compromise, a professional accountant’s
compliance with the fundamental principles.

 A circumstance or relationship may create more than one

threat, and a threat may affect compliance with more than one
fundamental principle.
 Threats
Compliance with the fundamental principles may
potentially be threatened by the following
circumstances:
Self-interest threats
Self-review threats
Advocacy threats
Familiarity threats
Intimidation threats
 Self-interest Threats

The threat that a financial

or other interest will
inappropriately influence
the professional
accountant’s judgment or
behavior;
 Self-review Threats

Occur when a previous

judgment made or service
performed needs to be re-
evaluated by the
professional accountant
responsible for that
judgment or service
 Advocacy Threats

Occur when a professional

accountant promotes a client’s
or employer’s position or
opinion to the point that
subsequent professional
accountant’s objectivity may
be compromised
 Familiarity Threats

The threat that due to a

long or close relationship
with a client or employer, a
professional accountant
will be too sympathetic to
their interests or too
accepting of their work
 Intimidation Threats

the threat that a professional

accountant will be deterred
from acting objectively because
of actual or perceived pressures,
including attempts to exercise
undue influence over the
professional accountant.
 Safeguards

Safeguards are actions or other measure that may

eliminate or reduce such threats to an acceptable
level. They fall into two broad categories:

1. Safeguards created by the profession, legislation or

regulation; and

2. Safeguards in the work environment

 Examples of Safeguards
Created by Profession, Legislation or Regulation

Educational, training and experience requirements for

entry into the profession.
Continuing professional development requirements.

Corporate governance regulations.

Professional standards.
Professional or regulatory monitoring and disciplinary
procedures.
 Safeguards in the Work Environment

The relevant safeguards will vary depending on the

circumstances. Professional accountants should exercise
judgment to determine how to best deal with an
identified threat.

Work environment safeguards comprise:

 Firm-wide safeguards
 Engagement specific safeguards
 Part B:
Professional Accountants in Public Practice

A professional accountant in
public practice shall not
knowingly engage in any
business, occupation, or activity
that impairs or might impair
integrity, objectivity or the good
reputation of the profession and
as a result would be
incompatible with the
fundamental principles.
 Threats

Compliance with the

fundamental principles may
potentially be threatened by
the following circumstances:
Self-interest threats
Self-review threats
Advocacy threats
Familiarity threats
Intimidation threats
 Examples of Circumstances that may give rise to
Self-Interest Threat for CPAs in Public Practice

A member of the assurance team having a direct

financial interest in a client

Undue dependence on total fees from a client

A member of the assurance team having a close

business relationship with an assurance client
 Examples of Circumstances that may give rise to
Self-Interest Threat for CPAs in Public Practice

Concern about the possibility of losing a significant

client

A member of the audit team entering into employment

negotiations with the audit client

Entering into a contingent fee arrangement relating to

an assurance engagement
 Examples of Circumstances that may give rise to
Self-Review Threat for CPAs in Public Practice

Issuing an assurance report on the effectiveness of the

operation of financial systems after designing or
implementing the systems

Having prepared the original data used to generate

records that are the subject matter of the assurance
engagement
 Examples of Circumstances that may give rise to
Self-Review Threat for CPAs in Public Practice

A member of the assurance team being, or having

recently been, a director or officer of the client

A member of the assurance team recently employed by

the client in a position to exert direct and significant
influence over the subject matter of the engagement

Performing a service for a client that directly affects the

subject matter of the assurance engagement
 Examples of Circumstances that may give rise to
Advocacy Threat for CPAs in Public Practice

Acting as an advocate on behalf of an audit client in

litigation or disputes with third parties

Promoting shares in an audit client

 Examples of Circumstances that may give rise to
Familiarity Threat for CPAs in Public Practice

A member of the engagement team having a close or

immediate family member who is a director or officer of the
client

A member of the engagement team having a close or

immediate family member who is an employee of the client
who is in a position to exert direct and significant influence
over the subject matter of the engagement
 Examples of Circumstances that may give rise to
Familiarity Threat for CPAs in Public Practice

A director or officer of the client or an employee in a

position to exert significant influence over the subject
matter of the engagement having recently served as the
engagement partner

Accepting gifts or preferential treatment from a client,

unless the value is clearly insignificant

Long association of senior personnel with the assurance

client
 Examples of Circumstances that may give rise to
Familiarity Threat for CPAs in Public Practice

A director or officer of the client or an employee in a

position to exert significant influence over the subject
matter of the engagement having recently served as the
engagement partner

Accepting gifts or preferential treatment from a client,

unless the value is clearly insignificant

Long association of senior personnel with the assurance

client
 Examples of Circumstances that may give rise to
Intimidation Threat for CPAs in Public Practice

Being threatened with dismissal from

a client engagement

An audit client indicating that it will

not award a planned nonassurance
contract to the firm if the firm
continues to disagree with the
client’s accounting treatment for a
particular transaction

Being threatened with litigation

 Examples of Circumstances that may give rise to
Intimidation Threat for CPAs in Public Practice

Being pressured to reduce inappropriately the extent of

work performed in order to reduce fees

A professional accountant feeling pressured to agree with

the judgment of a client employee because the employee
has more expertise on the matter in question

A CPA being informed by a partner of the firm that a

planned promotion will not occur unless the accountant
agrees with an audit client’s inappropriate accounting
treatment
 Safeguards in the Work Environment

The relevant safeguards will vary depending on the

circumstances. CPAs in public practice should exercise
judgment to determine how to best deal with an
identified threat.

Work environment safeguards comprise:

 Firm-wide safeguards
 Engagement specific safeguards
 Examples of Firm-Wide Safeguards
in the Work Environment

Leadership of the firm that stresses the importance of

compliance with the fundamental principles

Leadership of the firm that establishes the expectation

that members of an assurance team will act in the public
interest

Policies and procedures to implement and monitor

quality control of engagements
 Examples of Firm-wide Safeguards in
the Work Environment..cont’d.
Documented policies regarding the identification of threats
to compliance with the fundamental principles, and the
identification and the application of safeguards to eliminate
or reduce the threats

Documented internal policies and procedures requiring

compliance with the fundamental principles

Policies and procedures that will enable the identification of

interests or relationships between the firm or members of
engagement teams and clients.
 Examples of Firm-wide Safeguards
in the Work Environment..cont’d.

 Policies and procedures to monitor and, if necessary, manage

the reliance on revenue received from a single client

 Using different partners and engagement teams with separate

reporting lines for the provision of non-assurance services to an
assurance client

 Policies and procedures to prohibit individuals who are not

members of an engagement team from inappropriately
influencing the outcome of the engagement
 Examples of Firm-wide Safeguards
in the Work Environment..cont’d.

 Timely communication of a firm’s policies and procedures,

including any changes to them, to all partners and professional
staff, and appropriate training and education on such policies
and procedures

 Advising partners and professional staff of assurance clients and

related entities from which independence is required

 A disciplinary mechanism to promote compliance with policies

and procedures
 Examples of Firm-wide Safeguards
in the Work Environment..cont’d.

 Designating a member of senior management to be responsible

for overseeing the adequate functioning of the firm’s quality
control system

 Published policies and procedures to encourage and empower

staff to communicate to senior levels within the firm any issue
relating to compliance with the fundamental principles that
concerns them
 Examples of Engagement-specific Safeguards

 Having a professional accountant who was not involved with the

non-assurance service review the non-assurance work
performed or otherwise advise as necessary.

 Having a professional accountant who was not a member of the

assurance team review the assurance work performed or
otherwise advise as necessary.

 Consulting an independent third party, such as a committee of

independent directors, a professional regulatory body or another
professional accountant.
 Examples of Engagement-specific Safeguards

 Discussing ethical issues with those charged with governance of

the client.

 Disclosing to those charged with governance of the client the

nature of services provided and extent of fees charged.

 Involving another firm to perform or re-perform part of the

engagement.

 Rotating senior assurance team personnel.

 Examples of Safeguard
Within the Client’s Systems
 The client has competent employees with experience and
seniority to make managerial decisions

 The client has implemented internal procedures that ensure

objective choices in commissioning non-assurance engagements

 The client has a corporate governance structure that provides

appropriate oversight and communications regarding the firm’s
services

 The client requires a person other than management to ratify or

approve the appointment of an accounting firm to perform an
engagement
 Part B : Professional Accountants in Public Practice

 210 : Professional Appointment

 220 : Conflicts of Interest
 230 : Second Opinions
 240 : Fees and Other Types of Remuneration
 250 : Marketing Professional Services
 260 : Gifts and Hospitality
 270 : Custody of Client Assets
 280 : Objectivity - All Services
 290 : Independence – Assurance Engagements
 291 : Independence – Other Assurance Engagements
 Sec. 210.1 : Client acceptance

 Before accepting a new client relationship, a professional

accountant in public practice shall determine whether
acceptance would create any threats to compliance with the
fundamental principles.

 Potential threats to integrity or professional behavior may be

created from, for example, questionable issues associated
with the client (its owners, management or activities).
 Sec. 210.6 : Engagement Acceptance

 The fundamental principle of professional competence and due

care imposes an obligation on a professional accountant in
public practice to provide only those services that the
professional accountant in public practice is competent to
perform.

 A self-interest threat to professional competence and due care

is created if the engagement team does not possess, or cannot
acquire, the competencies necessary to properly carry out the
engagement.
Sec. 210.9 : Changes in Professional Appointment

A CPA in public practice who is asked to replace another

CPA, should determine any reasons, for not accepting the
engagement, such as circumstances that create threats to
compliance with the fundamental principles.

The threats must be evaluated, such that this may require

direct communication with the existing accountant
(i.e.,CPA) to establish the facts and circumstances so that
the CPA can decide whether it would be appropriate to
accept the engagement.
 Changes in Professional Appointment

An existing accountant is bound by confidentiality; and can only

discuss the affairs of the client with a proposed CPA after
obtaining the client’s permission.

A proposed CPA in public practice will ordinarily need to obtain

the client’s permission, preferably in writing, to initiate
discussion with an existing accountant.

Where the threats cannot be eliminated or reduced to an

acceptable level through the application of safeguards, a CPA
should decline the engagement
 Safeguards when there are
Changes in Professional Appointment

 When replying to requests to submit tenders, stating in the

tender that, before accepting the engagement, contact with the
existing accountant will be requested so that inquiries may be
made as to whether there are any professional or other reasons
why the appointment should not be accepted;

 Asking the existing accountant to provide known information on

any facts or circumstances that, in the existing accountant’s
opinion, the proposed accountant needs to be aware of before
deciding whether to accept the engagement; or

 Obtaining necessary information from other sources.

 Sec. 220 : Conflicts of Interest

A CPA in public practice should take reasonable steps to

identify circumstances that could pose a conflict of interest
and may give rise to threats to compliance with the
fundamental principles

A threat to objectivity or confidentiality may be created when

a CPA in public practice performs services for clients whose
interests are in conflict or the clients are in dispute with each
other in relation to the matter or transaction in question
 Safeguards Related to Conflicts of Interest

 Notifying the client of the firm’s business interest or activities

that may represent a conflict of interest, and obtaining their
consent to act in such circumstances; or

 Notifying all known relevant parties that the professional

accountant in public practice is acting for two or more parties in
respect of a matter where their respective interests are in
conflict and obtaining their consent to so act; or

 Notifying the client that the CPA in public practice does not act
exclusively for any one client in the provision of proposed
services and obtaining their consent to so act
 Additional Safeguards Related to
Conflicts of Interest

 The use of separate engagement teams

 Procedures to prevent access to information (for example, strict

physical separation of such teams, confidential and secure data
filing);

 Clear guidelines for members of the engagement team on

issues of security and confidentiality
 When Safeguards Can Not Eliminate
Conflicts of Interest

Where a conflict of interest creates a threat to one or

more of the fundamental principles, including
objectivity, confidentiality, or professional behavior,
that cannot be eliminated or reduced to an acceptable
level through the application of safeguards, the
professional accountant in public practice shall not
accept a specific engagement or shall resign from one
or more conflicting engagements.
 Sec. 240 : Fees and Other Types of Remuneration

When entering into negotiations regarding professional

services, a CPA in public practice may quote whatever
fee deemed to be appropriate

A self-interest threat to professional competence and

due care is created if the fee quoted is so low that it
may be difficult to perform the engagement in
accordance with applicable technical and professional
standards for that price
 Safeguards Related to
Fees and Other Types of Remuneration

Making the client aware of the terms of the

engagement and, in particular, the basis on which fees
are charged and which services are covered by the
quoted fee.

Assigning appropriate time and qualified staff to the

task.
 Contingent Fees

 Contingent fees may create a self-interest

threat to objectivity. The significance of the
threat will depend on:
 Nature of the engagement
 Range of possible fee amounts
 Basis for determining the fee
 Whether the outcome or result of the
transaction is to be reviewed by an
independent third party
 Safeguard Related to Contingent Fees

 An advance written agreement with the client as to the basis of

remuneration.

 Disclosure to intended users of the work performed by the

professional accountant in public practice and the basis of
remuneration.

 Quality control policies and procedures.

 Review by an independent third party of the work performed by the

professional accountant in public practice.
 Sec. 240.5: Referral Fees and Commissions

 A CPA in public practice may receive a referral fee or commission

relating to a client. For example, a fee may be received for
referring a continuing client to another professional accountant
in public practice or other expert.

 Accepting such a referral fee or commission creates a self-

interest threat to objectivity and professional competence and
due care
 Safeguards Related to
Referral Fees and Commissions

 Disclosing to the client any arrangements to pay a referral fee

to another CPA for the work referred

 Disclosing to the client any arrangements to receive a referral

fee for referring the client to another CPA in public practice

 Obtaining advance agreement from the client for commission

arrangements in connection with the sale by a third party of
goods or services to the client
 Sec. 250: Marketing Professional Services

When soliciting new work through advertising or

other forms of marketing, a self-interest threat to
compliance with the principle of professional
behavior is created if services, achievements or
products are marketed in a way that is inconsistent
with that principle
 Marketing Professional Services

A CPA in public practice should not bring the profession into

disrepute when marketing professional services. The CPA in
public practice should be honest and truthful and should
not:

 make exaggerated claims for services offered, qualifications

possessed or experience gained; or

 make disparaging references to unsubstantiated comparisons

to the work of another
 Marketing Professional Services

If the CPA in public practice is in doubt whether a

proposed form of advertising or marketing is
appropriate, the CPA in public practice should
consult with the relevant professional body.
 Sec. 260: Gifts and Hospitality

A self-interest or familiarity
threats to objectivity may be
created if a gift from a client is
accepted; intimidation threats to
objectivity may result from the
possibility of such offers being
made public

The significance of such threats

will depend on the nature, value
and intent behind the offer.
 Gifts and Hospitality

Where gifts or hospitality are offered that -- a reasonable and

informed third party, having knowledge of all relevant
information, would consider trivial and inconsequential, a CPA
in public practice may conclude that the offer is made in the
normal course of business without the specific intent to
influence decision making or to obtain information.

In such cases, the CPA in public practice may generally

conclude that there is no significant threat to compliance with
the fundamental principle (i.e., the threat is at an acceptable
level)
 Gifts and Hospitality
 Accepting gifts or hospitality from an audit client may create
self-interest and familiarity threats; and also intimidation threat.
 Unless the value is clearly trivial and inconsequential, the
threats cannot be reduced to an acceptable level by the
application of any safeguard.
 When the threats cannot be eliminated or reduced to an
acceptable level through application of standards, a CPA should
not accept such an offer
Section 290:
Conceptual Framework Approach to Independence

In an audit engagement, which is an assurance

engagement, it is in the public interest and,
therefore, required by the Code of Ethics, that
members of audit teams, firms and network firms
shall be independent of audit clients.
 Independence Comprises

Independence of Mind

Independence in Appearance
 Independence of Mind

The state of mind that permits the expression of a

conclusion without being affected by influences that
compromise professional judgment, thereby allowing

an individual to act with integrity, and exercise

objectivity and professional skepticism.
 Independence in Appearance

The avoidance of facts and circumstances that are so

significant that a reasonable and informed third party,
having knowledge of all relevant information, including
safeguards applied, would reasonably conclude a firm’s
or a member of the assurance team’s, integrity,
objectivity or professional skepticism had been
compromised
Conceptual Framework Approach to Independence

A professional accountant should evaluate the significance of

the threats identified; and apply safeguards to eliminate the
threats or reduce them to an acceptable level.

 When the professional accountant determines that appropriate

safeguards are not available or cannot be applied to eliminate
the threats or reduce them to an acceptable level, the
professional accountant shall eliminate the circumstance or
relationship creating the threats or decline or terminate the
audit engagement.
 Sec. 290.102: Financial Interests

Holding a financial interest in an audit client may create a self-

interest threat. The existence and significance of any threat
created depends on:
(a) The role of the person holding the financial interest,

(b) Whether the financial interest is direct or indirect, and

(c) The materiality of the financial interest.

 Sec. 290.102: Financial Interests

 When evaluating the significance of any threat to independence,

it is important to consider the degree of control or influence that
can be exercised over the intermediary, the financial interest
held, or its investment strategy.

 When control exists or ability to influence investment decision

exists, the financial interest should be considered direct; and
when the holder of the financial interest has no ability to
exercises such control or ability to influence investment decision
it will be considered indirect
 Financial Interest
Applicable to Audit Clients
If a member of the assurance team, or their immediate family
member, has a direct financial interest or a material indirect
financial interest, in the audit client, the self-interest threat
created would be so significant that no safeguards could
reduce the threat to an acceptable level.

Therefore, none of the following shall have a direct financial

interest or material indirect financial interest in the client:
 a member of the audit team
 a member of that individual’s immediate family; or
 the firm
 Safeguards Applicable to
Financial Interest Issue

 The close family member disposing, as soon as practicable, of all

of the financial interest or disposing of a sufficient portion of an
indirect financial interest so that the remaining interest is no
longer material;

 Having a professional accountant review the work of the member

of the audit team; or

 Removing the individual from the audit team.

 Financial Interest

When an inadvertent violation as it relates to a financial interest

in an audit client occurs, it is deemed not to compromise
independence if:

 The firm has established policies and procedures that require

prompt notification to the firm of any breaches resulting from
the purchase, inheritance or other acquisition of a financial
interest in the audit client; or
 Financial Interest

 The firm applies other safeguards when necessary to reduce any

remaining threat to an acceptable level. Examples of such
safeguards include:
Having a professional accountant review the work of the
member of the audit team; or

Excluding the individual from any significant

decision- making concerning the audit engagement.
 Loans and Guarantees
 A loan, or a guarantee of a loan, to a member of the audit team,
or a member of that individual’s immediate family, or the firm
from an audit client that is a bank or a similar institution may
create a threat to independence.

 If the loan or guarantee is not made under normal lending

procedures, terms and conditions, a self-interest threat would be
created that would be so significant that no safeguards could
reduce the threat to an acceptable level.

 Accordingly, neither a member of the audit team, a member of

that individual’s immediate family, nor a firm shall accept such a
loan or guarantee.
 Business Relationships

 A close business relationship between a firm, or a member of the

audit team, or a member of that individual’s immediate family,
and the audit client or its management, arises from a commercial
relationship or common financial interest and may create self-
interest or intimidation threats.

 Unless any financial interest is immaterial and the business

relationship is insignificant to the firm and the client or its
management, the threat created would be so significant that no
safeguards could reduce the threat to an acceptable level.
 Business Relationships

 Therefore, unless the financial interest is immaterial and the

business relationship is insignificant, the business relationship
shall not be entered into, or it shall be reduced to an insignificant
level or terminated.

 In the case of a member of the audit team, if the business

relationship is significant to that member, the individual shall be
removed from the audit team.
 Family and Personal Relationships

Family and personal

relationships between a
member of the audit team
and a director, an officer or
certain employees,
depending on their role, of
the audit client, may create
self-interest, familiarity or
intimidation threats.
 Family and Personal Relationships
 When an immediate family member of a member of the audit
team is:
(a) a director or officer of the audit client; or
(b) an employee in a position to exert significant influence
over the preparation of the client’s accounting records or
the financial statements on which the firm will express an

opinion,
the threats to independence can only be reduced to an
acceptable level by removing the individual from the audit
team.
 Family and Personal Relationships…cont’d.
 The closeness of the relationship is such that no other
safeguards could reduce the threat to an acceptable level.

 Accordingly, no individual who has such a relationship shall be

a member of the audit team.

 Another safeguard to consider is: Structuring the

responsibilities of the audit team so that the professional
does not deal with matters that are within the responsibility
of the close family member
 Sec. 290.134
Employment with an Audit Clients
 Familiarity or intimidation threats may be created if a director or
officer of the audit client, or an employee in a position to exert
significant influence over the preparation of the client’s
accounting records or the financial statements on which the firm
will express an opinion, - - has been a member of the audit team
or partner of the firm; and

 If a significant connection remains between the firm and the

individual, the threat would be so significant that no safeguards
could reduce the threat to an acceptable level.
 Sec. 290.134
Employment with an Audit Clients
 Therefore, independence would be deemed to be compromised
if a former member of the audit team or partner joins the audit
client as a director or officer, or as an employee in a position
to exert significant influence over the preparation of the client’s
accounting records or the financial statements on which the firm
will express an opinion, unless:
(a) The individual is not entitled to any benefits or
payments from the firm, and
(b) The individual does not continue to participate or
appear to participate in the firm’s business or
professional activities.
 Sec. 290.143
Recent Service with an Audit Client
 Self-interest, self-review or familiarity threats may be created if a
member of the audit team has recently served as a director,
officer, or employee of the audit client.

 This would be the case when, for example, a member of the

audit team has to evaluate elements of the financial statements
for which the member of the audit team had prepared the
accounting records while with the client.

 Consequently, such individual shall not be assigned to the audit

team
 Serving as a Director or Officer
of an Audit Client
 If a partner or employee of the firm serves as a director or
officer of an audit client, the self-review and self-interest
threats created would be so significant that no safeguards could
reduce the threats to an acceptable level.

 Accordingly, no partner or employee shall serve as a director or

officer of an audit client.
 Long Association of Senior Personnel
with an Audit Client
 Familiarity and self-interest threats are created by using the
same senior personnel on an audit engagement over a long
period of time.

 The significance of the threats shall be evaluated and safeguards

applied to eliminate the threats or reduce them to an acceptable
level. Examples of such safeguards include:
 Rotating the senior personnel off the audit team;
 Having a professional accountant who was not a member of the audit
team review the work of the senior personnel; or
 Regular independent internal or external quality reviews of the
engagement.
 Provision of Non-Assurance Services
To Audit Clients
 Providing non-assurance services may create threats to the
independence of the firm or members of the audit team.

 The threats created are most often self-review, self-interest and

advocacy threats.
 Part C : Professional Accountants in Business

 This Part of the Code describes how the conceptual framework

contained in Part A applies in certain situations to professional
accountants in business.

 A professional accountant in business may hold a senior position

within an organization. The more senior the position, the greater
will be the ability and opportunity to influence events, practices
and attitudes.
 Part C : Professional Accountants in Business

 A professional accountant in business is expected, therefore, to

encourage an ethics-based culture in an employing organization
that emphasizes the importance that senior management places
on ethical behavior.

 A professional accountant in business shall not knowingly engage

in any business, occupation, or activity that impairs or might
impair integrity, objectivity or the good reputation of the
profession and as a result would be incompatible with the
fundamental principles.
 Part C : Professional Accountants in Business

Examples of circumstances that may create self-interest threats

for a professional accountant in business include:
 Holding a financial interest in, or receiving a loan or guarantee
from the employing organization.
 Participating in incentive compensation arrangements offered by
the employing organization.
 Inappropriate personal use of corporate assets.
 Concern over employment security.
 Commercial pressure from outside the employing organization.
 Part C : Professional Accountants in Business

Examples of circumstances that may create familiarity threats

for a professional accountant in business include:
 Being responsible for the employing organization’s financial
reporting when an immediate or close family member employed
by the entity makes decisions that affect the entity’s financial
reporting.
 Long association with business contacts influencing business
decisions.
 Accepting a gift or preferential treatment, unless the value is
trivial and inconsequential.
 Safeguards in the work environment for
Professional Accountants in Business

 The employing organization’s systems of corporate oversight or

other oversight structures.
 The employing organization’s ethics and conduct programs.

 Recruitment procedures in the employing organization

emphasizing the importance of employing high caliber
competent staff.
 Strong internal controls.
 Appropriate disciplinary processes.
 Leadership that stresses the importance of ethical behavior and
the expectation that employees will act in an ethical manner.
 Safeguards in the work environment for
Professional Accountants in Business

 Policies and procedures to implement and monitor the quality of

employee performance.
 Timely communication of the employing organization’s policies and
procedures, including any changes to them, to all employees and
appropriate training and education on such policies and procedures.

 Policies and procedures to empower and encourage employees to

communicate to senior levels within the employing organization any
ethical issues that concern them without fear of retribution.
 Consultation with another appropriate professional accountant.
 Sec. 320: Preparation and Reporting of Information

 A professional accountant in business who has responsibility

for the preparation or approval of the general purpose financial
statements of an employing organization shall be satisfied that
those financial statements are presented in accordance with
the applicable financial reporting standards.
 Sec. 320.3: Preparation and Reporting of Information

 A professional accountant in business shall take reasonable

steps to maintain information for which the professional
accountant in business is responsible in a manner that:
(a) Describes clearly the true nature of business transactions,
assets, or liabilities;
(b) Classifies and records information in a timely and proper
manner; and
(c) Represents the facts accurately and completely in all
material respects.
 Sec. 320.4: Preparation and Reporting of Information

 Threats to compliance with the fundamental principles, for

example, self-interest or intimidation threats to objectivity or
professional competence and due care, are created where a
professional accountant in business is pressured (either
externally or by the possibility of personal gain) to become
associated with misleading information or to become
associated with misleading information through the actions of
others.
 Reminder. . . .
A distinguishing mark of the
accountancy profession is its
acceptance of the responsibility to act
in the public interest.

In acting in the public interest a

professional accountant should
observe and comply with the ethical
requirements of this Code
 On Character. . .
Be more concerned
with your character
than your reputation,
because your
reputation is merely
what others think you
are, while your
character is what
you really are