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Chapter 3

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19 views36 pages

Chapter 3

Uploaded by

shikaku.88hokori
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Chapter 3: The nuclear atom

Radiation and nuclear model of the atom


Radiation

Non-ionising radiation is energy electromagnetic


radiation with low energy.
Ionising radiation is high-energy radiation that can
affect the electrons surrounding an atom so that a
charged ion is formed.
Background radiation

Two types:
Terrestrial radiation comes from the decay of
radioactive elements such as uranium and
thorium in the Earth’s crust.

Cosmic radiation comes to us from space. It


comprises mainly protons that interact with
Earth’s atmosphere to produce cosmic
showers of radiation, some of which reaches
Earth’s surface.
Henri Becquerel

In 1896, Henri Becquerel


(1852–1908) discovered
that uranium salts emitted
a previously unknown form
of radiation.
He showed that atoms
were capable of emitting
smaller particles.

Therefore atoms must be


divisible.
J.J. Thomson (1856–1940)

Discovered the electron


in 1897

His ‘plum pudding’


model of the atom –
electrons in a positively
charged sphere of
electrification.
Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937)

Rutherford’s model of the atom


Niels Bohr (1885–1962)

He used a new form of physics


– quantum physics – to develop
a model where electrons were
only allowed to exist in specific
energy states.

While in those energy states,


they would not radiate energy.
The Rutherford–Bohr atom
Nucleus contains most of the mass.

Nuclear charge is positive and equal in size to the total electronic


charge.

Electrons exist in orbitals that correspond to allowed energy states.

The atom is bigger than the nucleus.


Atomic number and mass number

Symbol Name Description

mass number number of protons


A
(nucleon number) and neutrons in
the atom
atomic number
Z number of protons
(proton number)
number of neutrons
N N=A–Z
Periodic table of the elements

P
Standard notation
Nuclear families

Families Nuclides with the same

Isotopes atomic (proton) number, Z

Isobars mass (nucleon) number, A

Isotones number of neutrons, A – Z

Isomers Z and A, but different energy states


Terms explained

Atomic Number of protons in a nucleus


number (Z)
Atomic mass Number of nucleons in a single nuclide
number (A)
Unified mass Mass of a single carbon-12 nuclide, assigned the value 1
unit (u or Da) (1 u = 1.6605 x 10-27 kg)
Atomic mass Mass of a nuclide compared to a single carbon-12 nuclide
Atomic unit Obsolete unit originally based on oxygen-18 instead of
(amu) carbon-12. (If used, must be related to carbon-12)
Atomic weight Weighted average of all naturally occurring nuclides of an
element in a sample

Relative Atomic weight


atomic mass
Radioactive decay radiation

Alpha particle
 , 42 He 2 Helium-4 nuclide
Beta particle Electron

Positron
Gamma ray Electromagnetic
radiation
Neutrino Energy carrier

Antineutrino Energy carrier


Alpha decay

The alpha particle is a positively charged


helium nucleus.
All radioactive decays release energy.

238 234 4 2
92 U 90 Th  He2

The alpha decay of uranium as a general equation is:

A A 4 4 2
Z X Y  He
Z 2 2
Beta decay

Electron
There are two beta particles: one positive and one
negative.
Beta decay releases an electron and antineutrino.

234
90Th  234
91 Pa  e 
0
1

The beta decay of thorium as a general equation is:


A
Z X A
Y  e 
Z 1
0
1
Beta decay

Positron

This beta decay releases an positron and antineutrino


by changing a proton to a neutron.

195
81Tl  195
80 Hg  10 e 

The beta decay of thallium as a general equation is:


A
Z X A
Z1 Y  e 
0
1
Ionising power
Penetrating power
Detection of radioactivity

Radioactive decay radiation is invisible; it is


its interaction with matter that makes it
detectable.

Some types of detectors:


1. Charged electroscope
2. Solid-state detectors
3. Dosimeters
4. Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs)
5. Cloud chambers
Effects of magnetic fields

The greater the speed,


the greater the radius of deflection.
A cloud chamber

Ionising particles
cause tracks of
vapourised alcohol
particles that can
be observed.
Cloud chamber tracks

Ionising particles cause


tracks of vapourised
alcohol particles.

a. alpha particles
b. fast beta ray
Geiger–Müller tube
Half-life

A particular radioactive sample comprises uranium


nuclides.
Each nuclide has a 50% chance of decaying
within 10 minutes.
Time elapsed 1 2 3 4 5 6
(10 minute intervals)
No. of nuclides 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25
remaining (x 1020 )

N = number of nuclides remaining


n = whole number of ten minute intervals
The time taken for half a radioactive sample to
decay is called the half-life t​​1/2. In general, for a
sample of N0 particles, the number, N,
remaining after n half lives is given by the
equation:

Each radioactive isotope has a unique half-life.


Many products of radioactive decay are
themselves radioactive. Eventually, a stable
end product is reached. Three naturally
occurring decay series have been identified:
238 206
Radium or uranium series 92 U 82 Pb

Actinium series 235


92 U 207
82 Pb

Thorium series 232


90 Th 208
82 Pb
The radium decay series
Artificial transmutation

Transmutation: the changing of one element to


another.
Nitrogen nuclides absorb the bombarding helium
nuclides and form a composite, unstable nuclide:
14 4 18 *
7 N  He 
2 9 F
The nuclide decays to a more stable state:

18 17 1
9 F 8 O H
1
Neutron bombardment

When a nuclide takes in a neutron it becomes


less stable.

Frequently, the nuclide becomes a beta-emitter.


Transuranic elements

Each element beyond uranium (atomic number


> 92) is a transuranic element.

They do not exist naturally.

All are produced artificially.

All are radioactive.

There are no known stable isotopes of any


transuranic element.
Transuranic element plutonium

Formed by neutron bombardment of uranium-238


and then a decay series.

1
0 n 238
92 U 239
92 U 
*

239
92
*
U  239
93 Np  e 
* 0
1

239
93 Np  * 239
94 Pu  e 
0
1
Radiopharmaceuticals

Nuclear medicine uses radiopharmaceuticals for


medical diagnosis and treatment.
Gamma emitting radiopharmaceuticals
Radiopharmaceuticals

Nuclear medicine uses radiopharmaceuticals for


medical diagnosis and treatment.
Beta emitting radiopharmaceuticals
Safety in nuclear medicine

Radiation exposure in a nuclear medicine


centre can be high.

Radiochemicals are often contained in vials,


which are kept in lead ‘castles’ or ‘pigs’.

Workers watch through lead glass windows


and in a mirror as they draw up
radiochemicals into syringes.
Safety in nuclear medicine

A syringe shield is made of lead or tungsten, with a window of


lead glass so that the markings on the syringe can be seen.
Note the worker’s disposable gloves.

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