Rock Mechanics for
Mining and Petroleum
Engineers
Prodeepta Neogi
Course Code: PME Lecturer
211 Dept. of PME, MIST
Borehole Stability &
Geomechanics in
Drilling
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Introduction
◉ Stability of boreholes became an important issue in the
early 1980s when long, highly inclined wells were
evolving, to be able to drain large reservoirs from
single offshore platforms.
◉ Bradley (1979) is considered the person who introduced
analytic borehole stability analysis to the oil industry.
◉ From that time, geomechanics has evolved as a petroleum
discipline, and today a geomechanical analysis is often
conducted for more complex wells, in order to reduce risk 3
Introduction
Several well problems often arise during drilling –
◉ A circulation loss occurs when the volume of returned mud
is less than the volume of mud pumped. Circulation losses
are unplanned events that usually must be resolved before
drilling can continue. Circulation losses also may lead to
loss of well control, resulting in a blowout, or lead to
difficulty in cleaning the borehole, which may
eventually lead to a stuck drill string. One remedy is to
reduce the mud weight. We will develop a fracturing
model to analyze these problems
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Introduction
◉ Mechanical borehole collapse often occurs at low
borehole pressures, such as happens with too low mud
weight or during circulation losses or if the well is
swabbed in while tripping pipe. The remedy is often to
increase wellbore pressure, usually by increasing
the mud weight.
◉ Particularly in shales, chemical effects may induce
hole enlargement or collapse. When water-based
drilling fluids are used, the shale may react with the mud
filtrate (fluid that penetrates the wellbore wall),
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deteriorating the borehole. Oil-based muds are often
Introduction
Several well problems often arise during drilling –
◉ A circulation loss occurs when the volume of returned mud
is less than the volume of mud pumped. Circulation losses
are unplanned events that usually must be resolved before
drilling can continue. Circulation losses also may lead to
loss of well control, resulting in a blowout, or lead to
difficulty in cleaning the borehole, which may
eventually lead to a stuck drill string. One remedy is to
reduce the mud weight. We will develop a fracturing
model to analyze these problems
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In-Situ Stresses
◉ We use the sign convention of compressive stress as positive, a
convenience since we usually are dealing with compressive
stresses. We assume that these principal stresses are always
vertical and horizontal.
◉ In a relaxed depositional-basin environment, the two
horizontal stresses are smaller than the overburden stress,
a so-called normal fault stress state: σh < σH < σv. The two
horizontal stresses are often similar and equal to 70–90% of
the overburden stress. Most oil fields are located in
sedimentary basins and are in normal fault stress states.
◉ Tectonic stresses may arise due to faulting or plate tectonics.
Two different states may exist:
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○ Strike-slip fault stress state: σ < σ < σ
In-Situ Stresses
All rocks are subjected to stresses at any
depth. It is a convention in the petroleum
industry to define these stresses as follows:
◉ A vertical principal stress, usually the
overburden stress σv. This results from
the cumulative weight of the sediments
above a given point. Usually this is
obtained from bulk density logs or from
the density of cuttings.
◉ Two principal horizontal stresses, the
maximum horizontal stress σH and the
minimum horizontal stress σh. The 8
In-Situ Stresses
Terzaghi (1943) defined the effective stress principle:
The total stress is the sum of the pore pressure and the stress
in the rock matrix,
where we have indicated the effective stress as σ′.
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Math Problem-01
At a given depth in a sedimentary basin, the overburden stress is
equal to 1.95 SG from density logs. From fracturing data, the
horizontal stresses are defined as 1.75 and 1.77 SG. What type of
stress state exists in this field? Is this what you would expect in a
sedimentary basin?
Solution:
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Math Problem-02
Another well is drilled in a tectonic setting. The overburden stress is
given as 1.81 SG, whereas the two horizontal stresses are estimated
to be 1.92 and 1.64 SG. What stress state is this?
Solution:
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Math Problem-03
If there is normal pore pressure in 1 and 2, compute the effective
stresses, also called the rock matrix stresses.
Solution:
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Fracturing
◉ Borehole fracturing is a type of borehole instability that
occurs when the drilling fluid pressure exceeds the
pressure at which the borehole walls or rock formations
surrounding the bore fracture (the formation fracture
pressure). This can cause the borehole to collapse or
become unstable.
◉ There are a number of factors that can contribute to
borehole fracturing, including:
○ The type of rock or soil being drilled through
○ The diameter of the borehole
○ The drilling fluid used
○ The rate of drilling
○ The depth of the borehole 13
Fracturing
◉ Borehole fracturing can have a number of negative
consequences, :
○ Reduced borehole stability
○ Increased risk of borehole collapse
○ Reduced drilling efficiency
○ Increased cost of drilling
○ Damage to the surrounding environment
◉ There are a number of ways to prevent or mitigate borehole
fracturing, :
○ Using the correct drilling fluid
○ Drilling at a controlled rate
○ Using a casing to support the borehole walls
○ Drilling through weak or fractured rock formations in stages
○ Avoiding drilling through areas with high groundwater pressure
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Fracturing
For fracturing and collapse analysis during drilling, There are
two different mechanics approaches used in the oil industry:
◉ Classical mechanics approach. We assume an infinite
plate with a hole in the middle. This hole represents the
wellbore.
◉ Fracture mechanics approach, assuming that a fracture
already exists. This is used in stimulation operations where
massive fracturing and reservoir stimulation take place,
and relates to boreholes that are already fractured.
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Fracturing
◉ The plate in Fig. 2.6 is subjected to external loading
defined by the in-situ stresses. The borehole is the hole in
the middle. At the borehole wall, for the special case σH =
σh, three different stresses exist as illustrated in Fig. 2.7:
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Fracturing
◉ The tangential stress depends on the horizontal stress. The
factor 2 is called a stress concentration factor and is due to
the circular geometry of the borehole. If the borehole has
an oval shape or some other noncircular shape, higher
stress concentration factors often arise.
◉ If σH ≠ σh, then σθ would vary with θ. the borehole pressure
directly affects the tangential stress.
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Fracturing
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Fracturing
Fig. 2.8 visualizes the effects of varying the borehole
pressure.
◉ If the mud weight applies the same load as the stresses
before the hole was drilled, there is no disturbance, as
illustrated in Fig. 2.8a
◉ If the borehole pressure is lower than the in-situ
stresses, the borehole will shrink, or actually fail in
collapse (Fig. 2.8b), because of the high hoop stress that
is created with low borehole pressures.
◉ Fig. 2.8c illustrates that with a high borehole pressure,
the hole will expand until it fails or fractures. 21
Fracturing
◉ When the borehole pressure is increased, the wellbore wall
will eventually fail. Mud losses may occur through the
resulting fracture.
◉ Borehole fracturing is a tensile failure, because the
tangential stress goes into tension. Rocks generally have
low tensile strength. Often tiny cracks and fissures exist in
the rock body, or are created during the drilling operation.
It is therefore a common assumption to neglect rock tensile
strength.
◉ Fracturing is defined as the pressure at which the
effective hoop stress is zero.
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Fracturing
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Fracturing
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Thanks!
Any questions ?
You can find me at
◉ [email protected]
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