RESEARCH PROCESS

F
F

Review F
concepts F
and
Define theories Formulate Design Interpre
research Collect data Analyz
hypothese research t and
problem Review (execution) e data
s (including F F report
previous sample design)
1 research III V V
IV VI
findings I I
II Where FF-Feed forward-serves the
vital function of providing the
Literature criteria for evaluation
review F-Feedback-helps in controlling sub
system to which it is transmitted.
F
 NB:
 The chart indicates that the research process consist of a
number of closely related activities.
 Such activities overlap continuously rather than following a
strictly prescribed sequence.
 At times ,the first step determines the nature of the last
step to be undertaken.
 The various steps are not mutually exclusive nor are
they separate and distinct.
 They do not necessarily follow each other in any
specific order and the researcher has to keep on
anticipating at each step in the research process ,the
requirements of the subsequent steps.
 However the following order provides a useful
procedure guideline regarding the research process.
 The following order provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process
i. Formulating the research problem
ii. Extensive literature survey
iii.Developing the hypothesis
iv. Preparing the research design
v. Determining the sample size
vi.Collecting the data
vii.Execution of the project
viii.Analysis of data
ix.Hypothesis testing
x. Generalizations and interpretation
xi.Preparation of the report or presentations of the results.
Formulating the research problem
 There are two types of research problems ie those that
relates to nature and those that relate to relationship
between variables.
 At the very onset ,the researcher must single out the
problem he would want to study ie he must decide the
general area of interest or aspect of subject matter he
would want to inquire into.
 Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general
way and then the ambiguities if any relating to the
problem is resolved.
 The feasibility of a particular solution has to be
considered before a working formulation can be set up.
 Two steps are involved in formulating the research
problem ie understanding the problem thoroughly and
rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an
analytical point of view.
 Best way of understanding the problem –discuss it with
own colleagues or discuss with those that have expertise
in the matter
 Statement of the objective is important because it
determines the data which are to be collected ,the
characteristics of the data which are relevant,
relations to be explored and the choice of
techniques to be used in these explorations and
the form of the final report.
Extensive literature survey
 The researcher must examine all available literature to get
himself acquainted with the selected problem.
 Two types of review:
 Conceptual literature-concerning concepts and theories
 Empirical literature-consisting of studies made earlier
which are similar top to the one proposed.
 Outcome of literature review-knowledge as to what data and
other materials are available to enable the researcher
specify his research problem in a meaningful context.
 After this the researcher rephrases the problem into
analytical and operational terms.ie put the problem in as
specific terms as possible .
Developing the hypothesis
 After extensive literature survey ,researcher should state in clear
terms the working hypothesis /hypotheses.
 Hypothesis-a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test
its logical or empirical consequences .
 They provide the focal point for the research.
 They affect the manner tests must be conducted in the analysis of
data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the data
analysis.
 Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research
in hand.
 The role of hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the
area of research and to keep him in track.
 It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important
facets of the problem.
 It indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data
 Approach for developing working hypotheses
i. Discussion with colleagues and experts about the problem, its
origin and the objectives in seeking a solution.
ii. Examination of data and records ,if available ,concerning the
problem for possible trends , peculiarities and other clues.
iii. Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar
problems.
iv. Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field
interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and
individuals.
NB -working hypothesis arise as a result of a-priori
thinking ,examination of the available data and material including
related studies and the counsel of experts and interested parties.
NB-There are cases where hypotheses are not necessary eg for
exploratory or formulative research do not aim at testing the
hypothesis.
Preparing the research design
 This means that the researcher will be required to state the
conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.
 Importance of research
 The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as
efficient as possible yielding maximal information.
 It provides for the collection of relevant evidence
with minimal expenditure of time ,effort and money
but how all these can be achieved depends on the
research purposes, which may be categorized
as ;explorative, description ,diagnosis and
experimentation.
 For example for explorative research ,a flexible
research design which provides opportunity for
considering many different aspects of a problem is
considered.
 For descriptive research, the suitable research design
would be the one that minimises bias and maximizes
the reliability of the data collected and analysed.
 Types of research designs
Non experimental

Experimental
 Are of two types ;absolute and comparative
 For example when a farmer want to determine the impact
of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop ,this can be referred to
as Absolute experiment.
 For example if a farmer wants to determine the impact of
one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other
fertilizer, this can be referred to as comparative
experiment.
 Comparative experiment - When we talk about design of
experiments ,the researcher normally conducts
comparative experiment.
 Comparative experiment can either be
Informal designs (such as before -and after-
without control ,after- only with control ,before –
and –after with control )
Formal designs examples ;completely
randomized design ,randomized block design,
Latin square design ,simple and complex
factorial.
 Task for my students
Describe the following formal research
designs;completely randomized
design ,randomized block design, Latin square
design ,simple and complex factorial
Preparation of a research design requires the
following considerations
i. The means of obtaining the information.
ii. The availability and skills of the researcher and
his staff (if any)
iii.Explanation of the way in which selected means
of obtaining information will be organized.
iv.The time available for research
v. The cost factor relating to research ie the
finance available for that purpose.
 DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE
 All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’.
 A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population'
is known as a census inquiry.
 It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the
items are covered no element of chance is left and highest
accuracy is obtained.
 But in practice this may not be true.
 Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry
will get larger and larger as the number of
observations increases.
 Moreover, there is no way of checking the element
of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use
of sample checks.
 Besides this type of inquiry involves a great deal of
time, money and energy.
 Census inquiry is not possible in practice under
many circumstance eg ,blood testing is done only on
sample basis.
 A sample-represents selection of only a few items
from the population /universe for study purposes.
 Examples of sample designs
 Deliberate sampling/purposive/non probability
sampling
 This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection
of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample which
represents the universe.
 When population elements are selected for inclusion in the
sample based on the ease of access, it can be called convenience
sampling.
 At a times, such a procedure may give biased results particularly
when the population is not homogeneous.
 In judgement sampling ,the researcher’s judgment is used for
selecting items which he considers as representative of the
population. Eg a judgement sample of college students might be
taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching.
 Judgement sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative
 Simple random /chance /probability
sampling
 Here each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in
the sample and each one of the possible samples ,incase of finite universe has
the same probability of being selected.

 Systematic sampling
 Eg in some instances ,the most practical way of sampling is to select every
15th name on a list , every 10th house on one side of the street etc.
 This type of sampling is known as systematic sampling.
 An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling
especially when the sampling frame is available in the form of a list.
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