Power System

Protection

Dr. M Mahbubur Rahman

Syllabus:
 Purpose of power system protection, Introduction to
circuit interruption and protection. Terminologies and
general characteristics of relays and breakers. Circuit
breakers: control systems, arc extinction, recovery
voltage. Air, oil, air blast, vacuum, SF6 and high voltage
DC circuit breakers. Selection criteria, testing of circuit
breakers. Relays: overcurrent, directional, differential,
distance, sequence, pilot-wire and carrier current
protection. Busbar arrangement, grounding. Unit
protection: generator, motor, transformer, bus and line
protection. Static Relays: Introduction to Analogue and
Digital static relays. Static overcurrent, differential and
distance protection. Microprocessor based relays.
Purpose of What Equipments
protection System do we protect?
Interruption and
Protection
Every electrical circuit needs a switching device and a
protective device.
 The switchgear is a general term covering a wide range of
equipment concerned with switching and protection.
 A circuit breaker is a switching and current interrupting
device in a switchgear.
 The circuit breaker serves two basic purposes:
a. Switching during normal operating conditions for the purpose
of operation and maintenance.
b. Switching during abnormal conditions such as short circuit and
interrupting the fault currents.
 The first function is relatively simple, but the second
function is complex as the fault currents are relatively high
and they should be interrupted automatically within a short
time of the order of a few cycles.
Terminologies and general
characteristics of Relay and
Breakers
Reliability: It is the ability of the protection system to
operate correctly. The reliability feature has two basic
elements, which are dependability and security. The
dependability feature demands the certainty of a correct
operation of the designed system, on occurrence of any
fault. Similarly, the security feature can be defined as the
ability of the designed system to avoid incorrect
operation during faults. A comprehensive statistical
method based reliability study is required before the
protection system may be commissioned. The factors
which affect this feature of any protection system
depends on some of the following few factors.
Terminologies and general
characteristics of Relay and
Breakers
The factors which affect this feature of any protection
system depends on some of the following few factors.
 a) Quality of Component used
 b) Maintenance schedule
 c) The supply and availability of spare parts and stocks
 d) The design principle
 e) Electrical and mechanical stress to which the protected part of
the system is subjected to.
Terminologies and general
characteristics of Relay and
Breakers
Speed: Minimum operating time to clear a fault in order
to avoid damage to equipment. The speed of the
protection system consists primarily of two time intervals
of interest.
 The Relay Time : This is the time between the instant of
occurrence of the fault to the instant at which the relay
contacts open.
 The Breaker Time: This is the time between the instant
of closing of relay contacts to the instant of final arc
extinction inside the medium and removal of the fault.
Terminologies and general
characteristics of Relay and
Breakers
Selectivity: This feature aims at maintaining the
continuity of supply system by disconnecting the
minimum section of the network necessary to isolate the
fault. The property of selective tripping is also known as
“discrimination”. This is the reason for which the entire
system is divided into several protective zones so that
minimum protion of network is isolated with accuracy.
Two examples of utilization of this feature in a relaying
scheme are as follows
a) Time graded systems
b) Unit systems
 Sensitivity: The sensitivity of a relay refers to the
smallest value of the actuating quantity at which the
relay operates detecting any abnormal condition. In case
of an overcurrent relay, mathematically this can be
defined as the ratio between the short circuit fault current
(Is) and the relay operating current (Io). The value of Io ,
should not be too small or large so that the relay is either
too sensitive or slow in responding.
 Stability: It is the quality of any protection system to
remain stable within a set of defined operating scenarios
and procedures. For example the biased differential
scheme of differential protection is more stable towards
switching transients compared to the more simple and
basic Merz Price scheme in differential protection.
 Adequacy: It is economically unviable to have a 100%
protection of the entire system in concern. Therefore, the
cost of the designed protection system varies with the
criticality and importance of the protected zone. The
protection system for more critical portions
is generally costly, as all the features of a good protection
system is maximized here. But a small motor can be
protected by a simple thermally operated relay, which is
simple and cheap. Therefore, the cost of the protection
system should be adequate in its cost.
 Some basic terminologies commonly used in
the protection system are enlisted below.
i) Measuring Relay ii) Fault Clearing Time iii) Auxilliary
relay iv) Relay Time v) Pick up value vi) Reset Value
vii) Drop out viii) Reach ( under and over reaches) ix)
Relay Burden x) Unit/ Non unit protection xi) All or
Nothing relay
Definitions:
 Measuring and Monitoring Relay:
 A Measuring and Monitoring Relay is a protective control device
There are various types of Measuring and Monitoring Relays depending
on what they monitor and output alarm signals for. The basic functions
are to receive input signals, monitor and determine them, and output an
alarm signal if a set value (threshold) is reached.
 Measuring and Monitoring Relays (alarm relays) protect your important

devices and products against unlikely problems (e.g., overvoltage and

overcurrent faults).
 They monitor AC power supplies(voltage and current), temperatures,

and other analog signals and detect abnormalities in machines and

equipment by determining values against alarm thresholds. Also, an
alarm signal can be output from relay contacts if an input signal goes into
an abnormal status to stop the machine or equipment before it is damaged
 Fault clearing Time or Breaker Tripping time:
 Fault clearing Time or Breaker Tripping time = Relaying
Time+Breaker Opening Time + Arching Time.
 Relaying Time= Time start from when a relay circuit sense a fault
current & up to closing of the trip circuit of the circuit breaker.
 Breaker Opening time = Time start from closing of the circuit
breaker trip circuit to the opening of the circuit breaker contacts.
 Arching Time = Time start from opening of the contacts of the
circuit breaker to the final arc extinction.
 Auxiliary Relay: When a relay is used to switch a large amount of
electrical power through its contacts, it is designated by a special name,
like, contactor. The auxiliary contact is often used in a relay logic
circuit, or for some other part of the motor control scheme, typically
switching 120 Volt AC power instead of the motor voltage.
 Relay Time: Time start from when a relay circuit sense a fault current &
up to closing of the trip circuit of the circuit breaker.
 Pickup current: The current or voltage at which a magnetic contactor
starts to close under normal operating temperature.
 Reset Time: Term used to describe release time of a latching relay.
With a 2-coil magnetic latching relay the time is from the first application
of power to the reset coil until the reclosure of the reset contacts. With a
single coil latching relay, the time is measured from the first application
of reverse coil voltage until the reclosure of the reset contact
 Pick up voltage: (also defined as pull in voltage, or must
operate voltage) As the voltage of a de-energized Relay is
increased, this is the value at or below which all contacts
must function.
 Drop out voltage: (also defined as release, or must release
voltage) As the voltage on an energized Relay is decreased,
this is the value at or above which all contacts must return to
their de-energized position.
 Over Reach and Under Reach of a relay signify the
accuracy and coordination setting of the relay. For example
in Distance(mostly impedance relay) protection, when a
relay over reaches beyond its pre-set setting (the distance
up to which it should protect the line) it is said to have over-
reached and similarly if it is not able to detect the fault within
its defined reach and detects only upto a lesser (nearer)
point then it is said to have under-reached.
 All-or-nothing relay: A relay which is not designed to have
any specified accuracy as to its operating value.
 Auxiliary relay: An all-or-nothing relay used to
supplement the performance of another relay, by modifying
contact performance for example, or by introducing time
delays.
 Burden: The loading imposed by the circuits of the relay
on the energizing power source or sources, expressed as
the product of voltage and current (volt-amperes, or watts if
D.C) for a given condition, which may be either at 'setting' or
at rated current or voltage.
The rated output of measuring transformers, expressed in
VA, is always at rated current or voltage and it is important,
in assessing the burden imposed by a relay, to ensure that
the value of burden at rated current is used.
 Pick-up: A relay is said to 'pick-up' when it changes from the un-
energized position to the energized position.
 Inverse time delay relay: A dependent time delay relay having
an operating time which is an inverse function of the electrical
characteristic quantity.
 Inverse time delay relay with definite minimum (I.D. M.T.): A
relay in which the time delay varies inversely with the
characteristic quantity up to a certain value, after which the time
delay becomes substantially independent.
 Drop-out: A relay drops out when it moves from the energized
position to the un-energized position.
 Protective relay: A relay designed to initiate disconnection of a
part of an electrical installation or to operate a warning signal, in
the case of a fault or other abnormal condition in the installation.
A protective relay may include more than one unit electrical relay
and accessories.
1. What is the task of the branch circuit or feeder?

2. Which rated current / setting range?

3. Breaking/making capacities / rated operational voltage?

4. Any special requirements?

5. Which type of co-ordination?

6. What is the mode of mounting?

7. Cross-section of the connecting wire/cable?

Basic Relay
 Basic Relay
 A relay is an electromagnetic switch that is used to turn on and turn off
a circuit by a low power signal, or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal.
 The main operation of a relay comes in places where only a low-power signal
can be used to control a circuit. It is also used in places where only one signal
can be used to control a lot of circuits. The application of relays started during
the invention of telephones. They played an important role in switching calls in
telephone exchanges. They were also used in long distance telegraphy.
They were used to switch the
signal coming from one source
to another destination. After the
invention of computers they were
also used to perform Boolean and
other logical operations. The high
end applications of relays require
high power to be driven by electric
motors and so on. Such relays are
called contactors.
Basic Relay
 Relays are switches that open and close circuits electromechanically or
electronically. Relays control one electrical circuit by opening and
closing contacts in another circuit. As relay diagrams show, when a
relay contact is normally open (NO), there is an open contact when the
relay is not energized. When a relay contact is Normally Closed (NC),
there is a closed contact when the relay is not energized. In either case,
applying electrical current to the contacts will change their state.
Relays are generally used to switch smaller currents in a control circuit
and do not usually control power consuming devices except for small
motors and Solenoids that draw low amps. Nonetheless, relays can
"control" larger voltages and amperes by having an amplifying effect
because a small voltage applied to a relays coil can result in a large
voltage being switched by the contacts.
Protective relays can prevent equipment damage by detecting electrical
abnormalities, including overcurrent, undercurrent, overloads and
reverse currents. In addition, relays are also widely used to switch
starting coils, heating elements, pilot lights and audible alarms.
 Circuit Breakers
A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can
 make or break a circuit either manually or by remote control under normal
conditions
 break a circuit automatically under fault conditions
 make a circuit either manually or by remote control under fault conditions
Thus a circuit breaker incorporates manual (or remote control) as well
as automatic control for witching functions. The latter control employs
relays and operates only under fault conditions.
 Operating principle.
A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts, called
electrodes. Under normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed
and will not open automatically until and unless the system becomes faulty. Of
course, the contacts can be opened manually or by remote control whenever
desired. When a fault occurs on any part of the system, the trip coils of the
circuit breaker get energised and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some
mechanism, thus opening the circuit
 Operating principle.
 When the contacts of a circuit breaker are separated under fault conditions, an
arc is struck between them. The current is thus able to continue until the
discharge ceases. The production of arc not only delays the current interruption
process but it also generates enormous heat which may cause damage to the
system or to the circuit breaker itself. Therefore, the main problem in a circuit
breaker is to extinguish the arc within the shortest possible time so that heat
generated by it may not reach a dangerous value.
 Arc Phenomenon:
When a short-circuit occurs, a heavy current flows through the
contacts of the circuit breaker before they are opened by the protective
system. At the instant when the contacts begin to separate, the contact area
decreases rapidly and large fault current causes increased current density
and hence rise in temperature. The heat produced in the medium between
contacts (usually the medium is oil or air) is sufficient to ionise the air or
vapourise and ionise the oil. The ionised air or vapour acts as conductor
and an arc is struck between the contacts. The p.d. between the contacts is
quite small and is just sufficient to maintain the arc. The arc provides a low
resistance path and consequently the current in the circuit remains
uninterrupted so long as the arc persists.
During the arcing period, the current flowing between the contacts
depends upon the arc resistance. The greater the arc resistance, the smaller
the current that flows between the contacts. The arc resistance depends
upon the following factors :
 (i) Degree of ionisation — the arc resistance increases with the decrease in
the number of ionised particles between the contacts.
 (ii) Length of the arc — the arc resistance increases with the length of the
arc i.e., separation of contacts.
(iii)Cross-section of arc — the arc resistance increases with the decrease in
area of X-section of the arc.
 Principles of Arc Extinction
Before discussing the methods of arc extinction, it is necessary to
examine the factors responsible for the maintenance of arc between the
contacts. These are :
 (I) p.d. between the contacts
 (ii) ionised particles between contacts
Taking these in turn,
(i) When the contacts have a small separation, the p.d. between them is
sufficient to maintain the arc. One way to extinguish the arc is to separate
the contacts to such a distance that p.d. becomes inadequate to maintain
the arc. However, this method is impracticable in high voltage system
where a separation of many metres may be required.
(ii) The ionised particles between the contacts tend to maintain the arc.
If the arc path is deionised, the arc extinction will be facilitated. This may
be achieved by cooling the arc or by bodily removing the ionised particles
from the space between the contacts
 Methods of Arc Extinction
There are two methods of extinguishing the arc in circuit breakers viz.
 1. High resistance method.
 2. Low resistance or current zero method
High resistance method.
In this method, arc resistance is made to increase with time so that
current is reduced to a value insufficient to maintain the arc.
Consequently, the current is interrupted or the arc is extinguished. The
principal disadvantage of this method is that enormous energy is
dissipated in the arc. Therefore, it is employed only in d.c. circuit
breakers and low-capacity a.c. circuit breakers.
The resistance of the arc may be increased by :
 (i) Lengthening the arc. The resistance of the arc is directly
proportional to its length. The length of the arc can be increased by
increasing the gap between contacts.
 (ii) Cooling the arc. Cooling helps in the deionisation of the medium
between the contacts. This increases the arc resistance. Efficient
cooling may be obtained by a gas blast directed along the arc.
 (iii) Reducing X-section of the arc. If the area of X-section of the arc
is reduced, the voltage necessary to maintain the arc is increased. In
other words, the resistance of the arc path is increased. The cross-
section of the arc can be reduced by letting the arc pass through a
narrow opening or by having smaller area of contacts.
 (iv) Splitting the arc. The resistance of the arc can be increased by
splitting the arc into a number of smaller arcs in series. Each one of
these arcs experiences the effect of lengthening and cooling. The arc
may be split by introducing some conducting plates between the
contacts
 Low resistance or Current zero method.
This method is employed for arc extinction in a.c. circuits only. In
this method, arc resistance is kept low until current is zero where
the arc extinguishes naturally and is prevented from restriking
inspite of the rising voltage across the contacts. All modern high
power a.c. circuit breakers employ this method for arc extinction.
 In an a.c. system, current drops to zero after every half-cycle.
At every current zero, the arc extinguishes for a brief moment. Now
the medium between the contacts contains ions and electrons so
that it has small dielectric strength and can be easily broken down
by the rising contact voltage known as restriking voltage. If such a
breakdown does occur, the arc will persist for another half-cycle. If
immediately after current zero, the dielectric strength of the
medium between contacts is built up more rapidly than the voltage
across the contacts, the arc fails to restrike and the current wil be
interrupted. The rapid increase of dielectric strength of the medium
near current zero can be achieved by :
 (a) causing the ionised particles in the space between contacts to
recombine into neutral molecules.
 (b) sweeping the ionised particles away and replacing them by un-
ionised particles Therefore, the real problem in a.c. arc interruption is to
rapidly deionise the medium between contacts as soon as the current
becomes zero so that the rising contact voltage or restriking voltage
cannot breakdown the space between contacts. The de-ionisation of the
medium can be achieved by:
(i) lengthening of the gap. The dielectric strength of the medium is
proportional to the length of the gap between contacts. Therefore, by
opening the contacts rapidly, higher dielectric strength of the medium can
be achieved.
(ii) high pressure. If the pressure in the vicinity of the arc is increased, the
density of the particles constituting the discharge also increases. The
increased density of particles causes higher rate of de-ionisation and
consequently the dielectric strength of the medium between contacts is
increased.
(iii) cooling. Natural combination of ionised particles takes place more
rapidly if they are allowed to cool. Therefore, dielectric strength of the
medium between the contacts can be increased by cooling the arc.
(iv) blast effect. If the ionised particles between the contacts are swept
away and replaced by un-ionised particles, the dielectric strength of the
medium can be increased considerably. This may be achieved by a gas
blast directed along the discharge or by forcing oil into the contact space
Basic Circuit Breaker
 Circuit breakers:
 These are heavy-duty devices capable of interrupting
comparatively large electric currents safely. They are
designed not only to carry and interrupt the normal load
currents flowing in circuit but also to interrupt any abnormally
high current that may flow under fault conditions such as
short circuit. Circuit breakers are constructed mechanically
strong enough to withstand the forces set-up by enormous
short-circuit currents.
 The ability of a breaker to withstand short circuit forces is
expressed in Volt-Amperes, i.e., product of nominal circuit
voltage and the short-circuit current for which the breaker is
designed.
Basic Circuit Breaker
 Specifications of circuit breakers:
 1. Operating voltage of the circuit : It determines the
insulating requirements.
 2. Normal operating or maximum load current : It
determines requirements of the normal or load-carrying
parts.
 3. Maximum abnormal or fault current that must be
interrupted : It determines the mechanical requirements
of the breaker itself and of its supporting structure.
 Commonly used insulations are:
 l. Oil
 2. Vacuum

3. Inert gas e.g. sulphur hexafluoride.
Basic Circuit Breaker
 Principle of operation of Circuit Breakers :
 The circuit breaker actually makes a physical separation in the
current-carrying or conducting element by inserting an insulating
medium sufficient to prevent current from continuing to flow. In so
doing, the persistence of an arc across the gap is prevented. The
circuit is usually opened by drawing out an arc between contacts
until the arc can no longer support itself. The arc formed when the
contacts of a circuit breaker move apart to interrupt of a circuit is a
conductor made up of ionized particles of the insulating materials.
 Whenever voltages and currents are large other forms of insulation
are used in place or air to extinguish the arc as quickly as possible.
 Whenever fault occurs in the circuit breaker, relay connected to the
current transformer CT actuates and closes its contacts. Current
flows from the battery in the trip circuit As soon as the trip coil of the
circuit breaker gets energized the circuit breaker operating
mechanism is actuated and it operates for the opening mechanism.
Basic Circuit Breaker
Basic Circuit Breaker
 Air circuit breakers : An air circuit breaker employs air as
the interrupting insulation medium. Of all the insulating
media mentioned, air is the most easily ionized and, hence,
arcs formed in air tend to be serve and persistent.
 The switching elements for an air current, breaker, consists
of main and auxiliary contacts. The auxiliary contacts open
before the main contacts do, and the arc is drawn on them,
thereby avoiding serve pitting of the main contacts.
 Oil Circuit Breakers : Oil circuit breakers have their
contacts immersed in insulating oil. They are used to open
and close high-voltage circuits carrying relatively large
currents in situations where air circuit breakers would be
impractical because of the danger of the exposed arcs that
might be formed.
(i) Axial Air Blast type (ii) Cross Air Blast type (iii) Radial Air Blast type Circuit
Breaker
 Low-Oil Circuit Breaker
Plain-break oil circuit breaker
 When the contacts are drawn apart, the oil covering them tends to
quench the arc by its cooling effect and by the gases thereby generated,
which tend to "blow out" the arc. At the instant the contacts part, the arc
formed at each contact not only displaces the oil but decomposes it,
creating gas and a carbon residue. If these carbon particles were to
remain in place, as a conductor they would tend to sustain the arc
formed. However, the violence of the gas and the resulting turbulence of
the oil disperse these particles and they eventually settle to the bottom
of the tank. The insulating oil normally used as a dielectric strength of
around 30 kV per one tenth of an inch (compared to a similar value of 1
kV for air). Oil is also an effective cooling medium.
 Vacuum Circuit Breaker : Here the contacts are drawn apart
in a chamber from which air has been evacuated. The electric arc is
essentially an electric conductor made up of ionized air. Thus, if
there is no air, theoretically the arc cannot form. In practice,
however, a perfect vacuum is not likely to be obtained. The small
residual amount of air that may exist permits only a small arc to be
formed and one of only a very short direction. The same vacuum
however, will not dissipate the heat generated as readily as other
insulating media. This type of breaker has certain advantages in
terms of its size and simplicity.
Vacuum Circuit Breaker
 Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) breaker: This type of breaker
is similar to the vacuum types of breaker except that the vacuum is
replaced by an inert non-toxic, odorless gas-sulphur hexafluoride
(SF6). This gas, extinguished the arc so rapidly as almost to prevent
its formation. It is also excellent heat-dissipating characteristics, and
its dielectric strength is very much greater than that of oil.
 The breakers are constructed to modules capable of operation at
voltages from 34.4 kV at gas pressure of 45 psi to 362 kV at 240
psi. By connecting two or three such modules in series, breaker
capable of operating at 800 kV at 240 psi
can be constructed with two-three
-cycle interrupting time. Features
of sulphur hexafluoride interrupting
module.
Sf6 Circuit Breaker
 1. Arcing time : Time between separation of circuit breaker
contacts and Final current zero.
 2. Dead time : Time between final current zero of first opening and
contact touch during subsequent re closing.
 3. De ionizing time : Time for de ionizing the arc space after
opening of circuit breaker.
 4. Fault clearing time : Time between occurrence of fault and
closing of tripping contacts or energizing of shunt trip release.
 5. Opening time : Time between energizing of shunt trip release
and opening of circuit breaker contacts.
 6. Rated Short circuit breaking circuit : The rated short circuit
breaker current of a circuit breaker is the highest value of short
circuit which a circuit breaker is capable of breaking under specified
conditions of recovery voltage and power frequency recovery
voltage.
 7. Relay time : Time between occurrence of fault and closure of
relay contacts.
Circuit Breakers

 Control System

 Arc Extinction

 Recovery Voltage

 Air, Oil, Air Blast, Vacuum, SF6, and High

Voltage DC Circuit Breakers
Carrier Protection
Directional protection