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Basic Aircraft Maintenance For AMT

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Basic Aircraft Maintenance For AMT

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Chatchai Prasertsuk

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Basic Aircraft Maintenance for AMT

By: Chatchai Prasertsuk

Training Manager
Rev.03 Issue Date: October 2024
Major Structural
Stresses
•Five Major Stresses:
• Tension
• Compression
• Torsion
• Shear
• Bending
• Fatigue
Fixed-Wing Aircraft
• Key components of a fixed-wing aircraft include:
• Fuselage: The main body that houses the cockpit, passengers, and
cargo.
• Wings: Stationary structures that generate lift as air flows over them.
• Empennage (Tail Section): Provides stability and control with
components like the rudder and elevator.
• Engines: Propel the aircraft forward, which is essential for creating
lift.

Fixed-wing aircraft are widely used for transportation, military

operations, and recreation due to their efficiency in covering long
distances.
Fixed-Wing Aircraft
Fuselage

A truss-type fuselage. A An airframe using The most common

Warren truss uses mostly monocoque construction. airframe construction is
diagonal bracing. semi-monocoque.
Fixed-Wing Aircraft
Wings

• Key aspects of fixed-wing aircraft wings:

• Airfoil Shape: Curved design that creates pressure differences
above and below the wing, generating lift.
• Wing Types: Include straight, swept, delta, and variable-sweep,
each designed for specific flight speeds and efficiency.
• Control Surfaces: Parts like ailerons, flaps, and spoilers,
attached to the wings, enable pilots to control roll, lift, and drag
for stability and maneuvering.

Wings are crucial for aerodynamics, stability, and control in flight,

making them central to the aircraft's ability to maintain and adjust
altitude and direction.
Wing attach points and wing
dihedrals.

Various wing design shapes yield different

performance.
“Left” and “right” on an
aircraft are oriented to the
perspective of a pilot sitting in
the flight deck.
Externally braced wings, also called semi-cantilever wings, have wires or
struts to support the wing. Full cantilever wings have no external bracing
and are supported internally.
Wing structure nomenclature
Box beam construction.
Typical wooden wing spar cross-
sections.
Examples of metal wing spar shapes.
A truss wing A fail-safe spar with a riveted spar
spar. web.

A sine wave wing spar can be made

A plate web wing spar with vertical from aluminum or composite
stiffeners. materials.
Examples of wing ribs constructed of
wood.

Basic wood wing structure and

components.
Wing root fairings smooth airflow and
hide wing attach fittings.

A removable metal wing tip.

The skin is an integral load carrying part of a stressed skin
design.
Fuel is often carried in the wings.
The honeycomb panel is a staple in aircraft Honeycomb wing construction on a large
construction. Cores can be either constant jet transport aircraft.
thickness (A) or tapered (B). Tapered core
honeycomb panels are frequently used as flight
control surfaces and wing trailing edges.
Engine nacelle incorporating the landing gear
with the wheel well extending into the wing
root.
A wing leading edge formed from
honeycomb material bonded to the
aluminum spar structure.
Various aircraft engine
mounts.
Typical cowling for a
horizontally opposed
reciprocating engine.

An engine nacelle Orange peel cowling for

firewall. large radial reciprocating
engine.
Cowling on a transport category turbine engine
nacelle.
Fixed-Wing Aircraft
Empennage

• The empennage of a fixed-wing aircraft, also known as

the tail section, provides stability and control. It
typically includes:
• Horizontal Stabilizer: Provides pitch control, helping
maintain a steady up-and-down balance. It often has
an elevator, which controls the aircraft's nose angle.
• Vertical Stabilizer: Provides yaw control, helping keep the
aircraft aligned with its forward direction. It includes
the rudder, which controls left and right movement.
The fuselage terminates at the tail Components of a typical empennage.
cone with similar but more
lightweight construction.
Vertical stabilizer.
Fixed-Wing Aircraft
Flight Control Surfaces

• Flight control surfaces on a fixed-wing aircraft are movable parts on the

wings and empennage that allow the pilot to control and stabilize the aircraft's
movements:
• Ailerons: Located on the wings, they control roll, tilting the aircraft left or right.
• Elevator: Positioned on the horizontal stabilizer, it controls pitch, adjusting the
aircraft’s nose up or down.
• Rudder: Located on the vertical stabilizer, it controls yaw, helping the aircraft turn
left or right.
• Flaps and Slats: Extendable surfaces on the wings that increase lift at lower
speeds, often used during takeoff and landing.
• Spoilers: Panels on the wings that disrupt airflow, reducing lift and helping with
descent or braking after landing.
Typical structure of an aluminum flight
control surface.

Aileron hinge locations are very close to but aft of

Flight control surfaces move the the
aircraft around the three axes of flight. center of gravity to prevent flutter.
Aileron location on various wings.

Differential aileron control movement. Transferring control surface inputs from the flight
When one aileron is moved down, the deck.
aileron on the opposite wing is
Typical flight control surfaces on a transport category
aircraft.
A stabilizer and index marks on a
transport category aircraft.
Various aircraft with flaps in the extended position.
Various types of flaps.

Triple-slotted flap. Leading edge Side view (left) and front view (right)
flaps. of a Krueger flap on a Boeing 737.
Air passing through the slot aft of the Spoilers deployed upon landing on a
slat promotes boundary layer airflow on transport category aircraft.
the upper surface at high angles of
attack.
Balance tabs assist with forces needed to
position control surfaces.
Example of a trim
tab.
An aileron balance panel and linkage uses varying air pressure to assist in control surface
positioning.
The trailing edge of the wing just forward of
the leading edge of the aileron is sealed to
allow controlled airflow in and out of the
hinge area where the balance panel is
located.

An anti-servo tab moves in the same direction

as the
control tab. Shown here on a stabilator, it
desensitizes the pitch control.
A winglet reduces aerodynamic drag caused by Vortex
air generators.
spilling off of the wing tip.
Maintaining the Aircraft
• Maintaining an aircraft involves regular inspections, repairs,
and servicing to ensure safety, reliability, and performance. By
addressing issues early through preventive and scheduled
maintenance, aircraft remain airworthy, meet regulatory
standards, and operate efficiently. Proper maintenance extends
the aircraft's lifespan and supports safe, dependable aviation
operations.
Location Numbering Systems
• A location numbering system is a structured method for
identifying specific parts or areas within an aircraft or facility. This
system uses a combination of numbers, letters, or codes to mark
locations, making it easy to identify, track, and manage
components, areas, or equipment. It enhances efficiency in
maintenance, inventory control, and logistics by enabling precise
and quick identification of items or zones.
Location Numbering Systems
Fuselage Station
Location Numbering Systems
Butt Line

A butt line diagram of a horizontal

stabilizer shows a cross-sectional view
of the stabilizer, illustrating
measurements from the aircraft's
centerline outward. This diagram is
essential for positioning, alignment,
and structural analysis, providing
reference points for precise installation
and inspection. It includes
measurements that aid in ensuring
balance and symmetry of the stabilizer
relative to the aircraft's main axis.
Location Numbering Systems
Water Line
Location Numbering Systems
Wing Station
Landing
Gear
System
An amphibious aircraft
with retractable wheels
(left) and an aircraft
with retractable skis
(right).

Tail wheel configuration

landing gear on a DC-3 (left)
and a STOL Maule MX-7-235
Super Rocket.

The steerable tail wheel of a

Pitts Special.
Tandem landing gear along the longitudinal axis of the aircraft permits the use of
flexible wings on sailplanes (left) and select military aircraft like the B-52
(center). The VTOL Harrier (right) has tandem gear with outrigger-type gear.

Tricycle-type landing gear

with dual main wheels on a
Learjet (left) and a Cessna
172, also with tricycle gear
(right).
Triple bogie main landing gear
assembly on a Boeing 777.
Dual main gear of a tricycle-type
landing gear.
Wheel fairings, or pants, and low-profile
struts reduce parasite drag on fixed gear
aircraft.
Non-shock absorbing struts made from steel,
aluminum, or composite material transfer the
impact forces of landing to the airframe at a
non-damaging rate.
Piper Cub bungee cord landing gear transfer landing loads to
the airframe (left and center). Rubber, donut-type shock transfer
is used on some Mooney aircraft (right).
A landing gear shock
strut with a metering pin
to control the flow of
hydraulic fluid from the
lower chamber to the
upper chamber during
compression.
Some landing gear shock
struts use an internal
metering tube rather than a
metering pin to control the
flow of fluid from the bottom
cylinder to the top cylinder.
Axles machined out of the Torque links align the landing gear
same material as the landing and retain the piston in the upper
gear lower cylinder. cylinder when the strut is
extended.
An upper locating cam
mates into a lower cam
recess when the nose
landing gear shock strut
is extended before
landing and before the
gear is retracted into the
wheel well.
A shimmy damper helps control A towing lug on a landing gear is the
oscillations of the nose gear. designed means for attaching a tow
bar.
Fluid flow during shock strut operation is
controlled by the taper of the metering pin in
the shock strut orifice.

Valve core-type (A) and core-free valve

fittings (B) are used to service landing gear
shock struts.
Steps in servicing a landing
gear shock strut include
releasing the air from the
strut and removing the
service valve from the top
of the strut to permit the
introduction of hydraulic
fluid. Note that the strut is
illustrated horizontally.

On an actual aircraft
installation, the strut is
serviced in the vertical
position (landing gear
down).
Air trapped in shock strut
hydraulic fluid is bled by
exercising the strut through its
full range of motion while the
end of an air-tight bleed hose is
submerged in a container of
hydraulic fluid.
This valve tool features internal
and external thread chasers, a
notched valve core
removal/installation tool, and a
tapered end for depressing a
valve core or clearing debris.
Wheel alignment on an aircraft.
Finding tow-in and tow-out on a Camber of a wheel is the amount the
light aircraft with spring steel wheel is tilted out of the vertical plain. It
struts. can be measured with a bubble protractor.
Tow-in and tow-out adjustments
on small aircraft with spring
steel landing gear are made with
shims behind the axle assembly.
On shock strut aircraft, the
shims are placed where the
torque links couple.
The trunnion is a fixed
structural support that is
part of or attached to the
upper strut cylinder of a
landing gear strut. It
contains bearing surfaces so
the gear can retract.
A hinged drag strut
holds the trunnion
and gear firm for
landing and ground
operation. It folds at
the hinge to allow the
gear to retract.
A geared electric motor landing gear retraction
system.
A popular light aircraft
gear retraction system
that uses a hydraulic
power pack in the gear
down condition.
A hydraulic power
pack gear retraction
system in the gear
up condition.
A simple large
aircraft hydraulic
gear retraction
system.
These emergency gear
extension handles in a
Boeing 737 are located
under a floor panel on
the flight deck. Each
handle releases the gear
uplock via a cable
system so the gear can
freefall into the extended
position.
Typical landing
gear squat
switches.
A landing gear safety circuit with solenoid that locks the control handle
and selector valve from being able to move into the gear up position
when the aircraft is on the ground. The safety switch, or squat switch,
is located on the aircraft landing gear.
Proximity sensors
are used instead
of contact
switches on many
landing gear.
Gear pin ground lock
devices.
Landing gear selector panels with
position indicator lights. The Boeing
737 panel illuminates red lights above
the green lights when the gear is in
transit.
A cutaway view of a
nose gear internal
centering cam.
Packing grease into a clean, dry bearing can be done by hand in
the absence of a bearing grease tool. Press the bearing into the
grease on the palm of the hand until it passes completely through
the gap between the rollers and the inner race all the way around
the bearing.
An example of a main landing gear door latch
Main landing gear door latch roller clearance measurement and
adjustment.
An adjustable door hinge installation for setting door
clearance.
Over-center adjustments on a small aircraft
The following is a list of general inspection items to
be performed while swinging the gear:

1. Check the landing gear for proper extension and retraction.

2. Check all switches, lights, and warning devices for proper
operation.
3. Check the landing gear doors for clearance and freedom from
binding.
4. Check landing gear linkage for proper operation, adjustment,
and general condition.
5. Check the alternate/emergency extension or retraction systems
for proper operation.
6. Investigate any unusual sounds, such as those caused by
rubbing, binding, chafing, or vibration.
Nose wheel steering
on a light aircraft
often uses a push-
pull rod system
connected to the
rudder pedals.
Example of a large aircraft
hydraulic nose wheel steering
system with hydraulic and
mechanical units.
Hydraulic system flow diagram of large aircraft
nose wheel steering system.
Hydraulic system flow
diagram of large
aircraft nose wheel
steering system.
A shimmy damper on the
nose strut of a small aircraft.
The diagram shows the basic
internal arrangement of most
shimmy dampers. The
damper in the photo is
essentially the same except
the piston shaft extends
through both ends of the
damper cylinder body.
A typical vane-type shimmy
Aircraft Wheels
Removable flange wheels found on older aircraft are
either drop center or flat base types.
Two-piece split-wheel
aircraft wheels found on
modern light aircraft.

Features of a two-piece aircraft wheel

found on a modern airliner.
Keys on the inner
wheel half of an
aircraft wheel used
to engage and rotate
the rotors of a disc
brake.
Heavy use of the aircraft brakes
can cause tire air temperature
and pressure to rise to a level
resulting in explosion of the
wheel assembly. To alleviate this,
thermal plug(s) mounted in the
inner wheel half of a high-
performance aircraft wheels are
made with a fusible core that
melts and releases the air from
the tire before explosion.
Improper loose torque
on the axle nut can
cause excessive end
play leading to bearing
race damage known as
scalloping. Eventually,
this leads to bearing
failure.
Tire beads must be broken from the wheel to remove the
tire. A mechanical removal tool designed for breaking the
bead is shown in (A); a hydraulic press designed with the
capacity for large aircraft wheels is shown in (B); and an
arbor press is shown in (C). All are tools available to the
technician for this purpose.
Galling is caused by rubbing
of mating surfaces. The metal
gets so hot it welds, and the
surface metal is destroyed as
the motion continues and
pulls the metal apart in the
direction of motion.
Spalling is a
chipped away
portion of the
hardened surface of
a bearing roller or
race.
Overheating caused by lack of Staining and surface marks on
sufficient lubrication results in a the bearing cup that are grayish
bluish tint to the metal surface. black streaks with the same
The ends of the rollers shown spacing as the rollers are caused
were overheated causing the by water that has gotten into the
metal to flow and deform, as well bearing. It is the first stage of
as discolor. The bearing cup deeper corrosion that will follow.
raceway is usually discolored as
Bruising is caused by fine particle Bearing cups should be tight in
contamination possibly from a the wheel boss and should never
bad seal or improper rotate. The outside of a bearing
maintenance of bearing cup that was spinning while
cleanliness. It leaves a less than installed in the wheel is shown.
smooth surface on the bearing
cup.
The bead seat areas
of a light aircraft
wheel set. Eddy
current testing for
cracks in the bead
seat area is
common.
Inspection for cracks in the
wheel disc drive key area is
performed with dye
penetrant on many wheels. Visually inspect the core of a thermal or
fusible plug for deformation associated with
heat exposure. Replace all of the plugs if
any appear to have begun to deform.
Aircraft Brakes
Two-piece aircraft
wheels are statically
balanced when
manufactured and may
include weights
attached to each wheel
half that must stay with
the wheel during its
entire serviceable life.
A single disc brake is
a floating-disc, fixed
caliper brake.
An exploded view of a single-disc brake assembly found on a light
aircraft.
A cross-sectional view of
a Goodyear single-disc
brake caliper illustrates
the adjusting pin
assembly that doubles
as a wear indicator.
A Cleveland brake on a light aircraft is a fixed-disc brake. It allows the
brake caliper to move laterally on anchor bolts to deliver even
pressure to each side of the brake disc.
An exploded view of a dual-piston Cleveland brake assembly.
A dual-disc brake is similar to
a single-disc brake. It uses a
center carrier to hold brake
linings against each of the
A multiple disc brake with
bearing carrier upon which
the parts of the brake are
assembled including an
annular cylinder and piston
assembly that apply pressure
evenly to a stack of rotors
and stators.
A multiple-disc brake with details of the automatic adjuster.
Exploded and detail
views of segmented
rotor brakes.
The multiple-disk brake assembly
and details from a Boeing 737.
A carbon brake for a
Boeing 737. An expander tube brake
assembly.
An exploded view of an expander tube brake.
Master cylinders on an independent brake system are
directly connected to the rudder pedals or are connected
through mechanical linkage.
A remote reservoir
services both master
cylinders on some
independent braking
systems.
A Goodyear brake master cylinder from an independent
braking system with a remote reservoir.
A master cylinder for a boosted brake
system augments foot pedal pressure
with aircraft system hydraulic
pressure during heavy braking.
• The orientation of components in a
basic power brake system is shown
in A.

• The general layout of an airliner

power brake system is shown in B.
The power brake system on a Boeing
Emergency brake hydraulic fluid
accumulators are pre-charged with
nitrogen to deliver brake fluid to the
brakes in the event normal and
alternate hydraulic sources fail.
The Boeing 757 normal brake
system with auto brake and
antiskid.
Aircraft Tires and Tubes
Type III aircraft tires are identified
via a two-number system with a
(-) separating the numbers. The
first number is the tire section
width in inches. The second
number is the rim diameter in
inches. For example: 6.00 – 6 is a
Cessna 172 tire that is 6.00
inches wide and fits on a rim that
has a diameter of 6 inches.
A Type VII aircraft tire is
identified by its two- number
designation. The first number
represents the tire’s overall
diameter in inches and the
second number represents the
section width in inches. Type
VII designators separate the
first and second number an
“X.” For example: 26 X 6.6
identifies a tire that is 26
inches in diameter with a 6.6-
inch nominal width.
A Type VIII or three-part nomenclature tire
is identified by 3 parameters: overall
diameter, section width, and rim diameter.
They are arranged in that order with the
first two separated by an “X” and the
second two separated by a “–.” For
example: 18 X 4.25—10 designates a tire
that is 18 inches in diameter with a 4.25-
inch section width to be mounted on a 10-
inch wheel rim.
A bias ply tire has the
fabric bias oriented with
and across the direction of
rotation and the sidewall.
Since fabric can stretch on
the bias, the tire is flexible
and can absorb loads.
Strength is obtained by
adding plies.
A radial tire has the fiber
strands of the ply fabric
oriented with and at 90° to
the direction of rotation and
the tire sidewall. This
restricts flexibility
directionally and the
flexibility of the sidewall
while it strengthens the tire
to carry heavy loads.
Construction nomenclature of an aircraft tire.
Aircraft tire treads are designed for different uses. A is a rib tread designed
for use on paved surfaces. It is the most common aircraft tire tread design.
B is a diamond tread designed for unpaved runways. C is an all weather
tread that combines a ribbed center tread with a diamond tread pattern of
the edges. D is a smooth tread tire found on older, slow aircraft without
brakes designed for stopping. E is a chine tire used on the nose gear of
aircraft with fuselage mounted jet engines to deflect runway water away
from the engine intake(s).
A sidewall vent marked by a
colored dot must be kept free
from obstruction to allow
trapped air or nitrogen to escape
from the carcass plies of the tire.
Tire
Inspectio
n on the
Aircraft
Tires that are overinflated lack
adherence to the runway and
develop excess tread wear in
the center of the tread. Tires
that are underinflated develop
excess tread wear on the tire
shoulders. Overheating
resulting in internal carcass
damage and potential failure
are possible from flexing the
tire beyond design limits.
Marking of damaged area to
enable closer inspection.

Deflate a tire before removing or

probing any area where a foreign
object is lodged.
Landing with the brake
on causes a tire flat
spot that exposes the
under tread and
requires replacement of
the tire.
Remove an aircraft tire from service when the depth of a cut
exposes the casing outer plies of a bias ply tire or the outer belt
layer of a radial tire (A); a tread rib has been severed across the
entire width (B); or, when undercutting occurs at the base of any cut
(C). These conditions may lead to a peeled rib.
Bulges and tread separation are cause for removal of a tire from
service.
Chevron cuts in a tire are Tread chipping and chunking of a tire requires
caused by operation on that the tire be removed from service if more
grooved runway surfaces. than 1 square inch of the reinforcing ply or
Shallow chevron cuts are protector ply is exposed.
permitted on aircraft tires.
A thrown tread can result from a groove crack or
tread undercutting and must be removed from
service.
Hydraulics &
Pneumatic
Power System
By: Chatchai Prasertsuk
Issue date: November 1,2022 Rev.00
Hydraulic Fluid
Hydraulic system liquids are
mainly used to transmit and
distribute forces to different
components because they are
nearly incompressible. According
to Pascal's Law, pressure applied
to any part of a confined liquid is
transmitted equally throughout
the liquid. This allows pressure to
be distributed through multiple
passages in the system via the
liquid.
Types of Hydraulic
Fluids
To assure proper system operation and to avoid damage to
nonmetallic components of the hydraulic system, the correct fluid
must be used. When adding fluid to a system, use the type specified
in the aircraft manufacturer’s maintenance manual or on the
instruction plate affixed to the reservoir or unit being serviced.

The three principal categories of hydraulic fluids

are:
1. Minerals
2. Polyalphaolefins
3. Phosphate esters
Mineral-based hydraulic fluids
• Mineral-based hydraulic fluids, specifically MIL-H-5606,
have been used since the 1940s, particularly in low-fire-
risk systems. MIL-H-6083 is a rust-inhibited version of
MIL-H-5606, and both are interchangeable. These fluids
are petroleum-derived, with a red color and an odor
similar to penetrating oil. Synthetic rubber seals are
compatible with these petroleum-based fluids. Some
synthetic hydraulic fluids are colored purple or green for
identification.
Polyalphaolefin-based hydraulic fluid
• Polyalphaolefin-based hydraulic fluid (MIL-H-83282) was
developed in the 1960s to address the flammability of MIL-H-
5606. MIL-H-83282 is much more flame-resistant than MIL-H-
5606, but it has higher viscosity at low temperatures, limiting its
use to temperatures down to –40 °F. However, it is compatible
with the same systems, seals, gaskets, and hoses as MIL-H-5606.
MIL-H-46170 is a rust-inhibited version of MIL-H-83282. While
MIL-H-5606 is predominantly used in small aircraft, some have
switched to MIL-H-83282 if they can accommodate its higher
viscosity at low temperatures.
Phosphate Ester-Based Fluids

• Phosphate ester-based fluids are highly fire-resistant and are

widely used in commercial transport aircraft. Although not
fireproof, they can burn under certain conditions. These fluids are
vulnerable to contamination from atmospheric moisture. They
were first developed after World War II to address hydraulic brake
fires in aircraft, with further improvements made to meet the
performance demands of newer aircraft. Manufacturers named
these fluids, like Skydrol® and Hyjet®, based on their
performance characteristics.
Basic Hydraulic
Systems

Basic hydraulic Open center hydraulic

system. system.
Closed-Center Hydraulic
Systems

A basic closed-center hydraulic system with a variable displacement

pump.
Hydraulic Power Systems
Evolution of Hydraulic Systems

The evolution of hydraulic systems has progressed to meet the

increasing demands of aircraft performance and safety. Early hydraulic
systems were simple, using basic pumps and valves to control limited
functions. As aircraft technology advanced, hydraulic systems became
more complex, incorporating multiple control units, accumulators, and
advanced pumps to manage critical operations, including landing gear,
brakes, and flight controls. Modern hydraulic systems now use variable
displacement pumps, closed-center configurations, and fire-resistant
fluids, providing more efficient, reliable, and safer operations under
high-pressure conditions.
Hydraulic Power
Systems
Hydraulic Power Pack System
The Hydraulic Power Pack System is a
compact, self-contained unit that provides
hydraulic power to various aircraft systems.
It typically includes a reservoir, pump,
motor, and necessary valves and controls.
The system generates and regulates
hydraulic pressure to operate components
such as landing gear, brakes, and flight
control surfaces. Hydraulic power packs are
commonly used in small aircraft and
helicopters where a full hydraulic system
would be impractical, as they save space
and weight while providing the necessary
hydraulic force.
Large commercial aircraft hydraulic
Hydraulic reservoir standpipe for emergency
Components of an
air-pressurized
reservoir.

Nonpressurized Air-pressurized reservoir.

reservoir.
Hydraulic Power
Systems

Reservoir pressurization module.

Hydraulic Power
Systems

Before servicing always make sure that

the:
• Spoilers are retracted,
• Landing gear is down,
• Landing gear doors are closed,
• Thrust reversers are retracted, and
• Parking brake accumulator pressure
reads at least 2,500 psi.

Operating principle behind a fluid-

pressurized hydraulic reservoir.
Hydraulic Power
Systems
Hydraulic Power
Systems

Filter module components. A transport category filter module with two

filters.
Hydraulic Power
Systems
Micron-Type Filters

A micron-type filter assembly uses a

specially treated paper element with
vertical convolutions to trap particles
larger than 10 microns. If the filter clogs, a
relief valve bypasses the fluid at a 50 psi
differential. Hydraulic fluid enters through
the inlet, flows around the element, and is
filtered as it passes through, leaving
contaminants on the element's exterior.

Size comparison in
microns.
Hydraulic Power Systems
Maintenance of Filters

Filter maintenance involves regular inspection and replacement to

ensure efficient system operation. Filters should be checked for signs
of clogging or damage, and the filter elements should be replaced
according to the manufacturer's recommendations. In some systems,
a differential pressure indicator alerts maintenance personnel when
the filter is clogged. Regular filter maintenance prevents
contaminants from circulating in the hydraulic system, protecting
sensitive components and prolonging the system's lifespan.
Hydraulic Power
Systems
Filter Bypass Valve

A filter bypass valve is a component in

hydraulic systems designed to allow fluid to
bypass the filter element if it becomes
clogged. This ensures that hydraulic fluid
can continue to circulate, even when the
filter is blocked, preventing potential system
pressure buildup or damage. The bypass
valve typically activates when the
differential pressure across the filter element
reaches a set threshold, allowing unfiltered
fluid to flow through and maintain system
functionality.
Hydraulic Power
Systems

Double action hand pump. Rotary hand pump.

Hydraulic Power
Systems

Engine-driven pump.
Hydraulic Power
Systems

Electrically-driven Gear-type power pump.

pump.
Axial inline piston
Bent axis piston
Vane-type power pump.
Variable displacement
Normal pumping
mode.
Yoke Depressurized
angle. mode.
Four-way servo control
valve.
Hydraulic Power Systems

Servo control valve solenoids not Servo control valve right solenoid
energized. energized.
Hydraulic Power
Systems

An in-line check valve and orifice type in-line

check valve.
Hydraulic Power
Systems

A pressure-controlled sequence
valve.
Hydraulic Power
Systems

Priority valve.
Spring

Mechanically operated sequence A hydraulic quick-disconnect

valve. valve.
Hydraulic Power
Systems

Hydraulic fuse.
Hydraulic Power
Systems

Pressure relief valve.

Hydraulic Power Systems

Operating mechanism of a pressure reducing

Hydraulic Power
Systems

A spring-loaded piston-type shuttle valve in normal configuration (A)

and with alternate/emergency supply (B).
Hydraulic Power
Systems

Shutoff valves.
Hydraulic Power
Systems

Cylindrical
A spherical accumulator with diaphragm (left) and accumulator.
bladder (right). The dotted lines in the right drawing
depict the bladder when the accumulator is charged
with both hydraulic system fluid and nitrogen preload.
Hydraulic Power
Systems
Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers in transport aircraft

cool hydraulic fluid from hydraulic
pumps, extending the fluid and pump
life. Located in the fuel tanks, these heat
exchangers use aluminum finned tubes
to transfer heat from the fluid to the fuel.
Fuel levels in tanks with heat exchangers
must be maintained for effective cooling.

Hydraulic heat exchanger.

Hydraulic Power Systems

Linear Linear actuator

actuator. operation.
Rack and pinion
Bent axis piston motor.
Hydraulic Power
Systems
Ram Air Turbine (RAT)
A Ram Air Turbine (RAT) is an
emergency power source on aircraft,
deployed to provide hydraulic or
electrical power in case of primary
power failure. The RAT extends into the
airstream, where airflow spins the
turbine, generating power to operate
essential systems like flight controls. It’s
commonly used on commercial and
military aircraft to ensure critical
systems remain operational during an Ram air turbine.
emergency.
Power transfer unit.
Packing Backup O-rings installed
s.
O-ring installation
techniques.
O-ring installation
techniques.
O-ring installation
techniques.
More O-ring installation
techniques.
More O-ring installation
techniques.
Large aircraft hydraulic Boeing 737 hydraulic system
systems. (simplified).
A Boeing 777 hydraulic system.
Right hydraulic system of a Boeing 777. A left system is
Center hydraulic
system.
Center hydraulic isolation
system.
High-pressure pneumatic
system.
Pneumatic brake Pneumatic control valve.
system.
Pneumatic emergency landing gear extension
system.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Small single-engine aircraft have
a simple electrical system due to
their lower need for redundancy and
complexity compared to larger
aircraft. Typically, they have a single
electrical system powered by an
engine-driven alternator or
generator, with a battery used for
engine starting and emergency
power. Electrical power is distributed
through an electrical bus (or bus
Light aircraft circuit breaker
bar), which serves as a common panel.
point for power distribution to
Aircraft Electrical
Systems

Schematic of typical battery Battery

circuit. solenoid.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems

Simplified generator control

circuit.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Alternator Circuit
An alternator circuit in an aircraft controls the power flow to
and from the alternator. The pilot operates this circuit
through the alternator master switch, which engages the
alternator control unit (or voltage regulator) to supply
current to the alternator field. When powered by the aircraft
engine, the alternator provides electrical power to the
aircraft's systems. The main components of the alternator
circuit are the alternator, voltage regulator, and alternator
master switch.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems

Alternator control
circuit. Typical ammeter circuit used to monitor
alternator output.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
External Power Circuit

An external power circuit in aircraft

enables connection to a ground
power source for engine starts or
maintenance, allowing use of
electrical systems without draining
the battery. It typically includes an
electrical plug on the fuselage, a
External power
solenoid to link external power to the receptacle.
bus, and associated wiring.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems

A simple external power circuit

diagram.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Starter Circuit
A starter circuit in modern aircraft uses
an electric motor to initiate the engine.
The starter motor, which requires
significant power (often drawing 100+
amperes), is controlled via a solenoid to
handle the high current safely.

Multifunction starter Starter

Aircraft Electrical
Systems

Avionics power
circuit.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Landing Gear Circuit

The Landing Gear Circuit in high-performance light aircraft controls the

retractable landing gear system, typically using a hydraulic
mechanism. When the pilot selects the retract position after takeoff, an
electric motor activates a hydraulic pump to move the gear. The
electrical system is complex, monitoring the position of each gear
(right, left, nose) to ensure it reaches full up or down, and controls the
motor based on this data. Safety features are included to prevent
accidental gear actuation.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems

Instrument panel showing the landing gear position switch and the three gear
down indicators.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems

Aircraft landing gear schematic while Landing gear moving down

gear is in the DOWN and locked diagram.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
AC Supply

Modern light aircraft often use a low-power AC system for specific

instruments and lighting, such as electroluminescent panels. These
panels, ideal for aircraft due to their efficiency and lightweight,
require AC power to operate. Electroluminescent material, which
glows when voltage is applied, is molded into plastic panels to
provide lighting for instrument panels..
Aircraft Electrical
Systems

Distribution
circuit..

A static
inverter.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems

Vibrating point system used for paralleling

Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Power Distribution on Multiengine Aircraft

Modern multiengine aircraft have complex power distribution systems

that include multiple distribution points (buses) and numerous control
and protection components. This complexity ensures high reliability
for the aircraft's electrical power, as more electronics are used for
various functions. To enhance reliability, critical loads can be powered
by more than one source and are often supplied from multiple buses.
Twin-engine aircraft, such as corporate jets or commuter planes,
typically have two DC generators and multiple distribution buses,
each connected to a generator, to ensure continuous power
availability.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Diagram of the
power distribution
system for a twin-
engine turboprop
aircraft.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Large Multiengine Aircraft

Large multiengine aircraft, such as those in the transport category,

require highly reliable power distribution systems due to the large
number of passengers they carry and the long distances they fly.
These systems are often computer-controlled and include multiple
power sources, typically AC generators driven by turbine engines, as
well as backup generators. The aircraft also utilizes DC systems, with a
battery available to provide emergency power in case of multiple
system failures. Multiple distribution buses are used to ensure
continuous power to essential systems, maintaining safety and
reliability throughout the flight.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
In modern transport aircraft, there are typically multiple
AC generators to ensure a reliable power supply. Each
engine has a primary AC generator producing three-
phase 115-volt AC at 400 Hz, with the capacity of 110
kilovolt amps (KVA). Additionally, the Auxiliary Power
Unit (APU) has an AC generator that can be used if a
main generator fails. For further backup, an emergency
generator driven by a ram air turbine provides power if
both main and APU generators fail. If all AC generators
are lost, the aircraft battery supplies DC power to critical
systems, making a total power failure highly unlikely.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
AC Power Systems

Dual-feed bus
system.
Aircraft Electrical Systems

Schematic of split-bus power

Aircraft Electrical
Systems

Parallel power distribution

Aircraft Electrical
Systems

Split-parallel distribution
system.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Wiring Installation

Wiring Diagrams

Wiring diagrams in aircraft service manuals provide details such as

wire sizes, terminal types, and component information (part and serial
numbers) for specific applications. They also document any production
changes. These diagrams are essential for troubleshooting electrical
issues.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Wiring Installation

Block Diagrams

A block diagram is a simplified representation used to assist in

troubleshooting complex electrical and electronic systems. It consists
of blocks, each representing a component or module, like a printed
circuit board or another replaceable part.
Block diagram of an aircraft electrical
Aircraft Electrical Systems
Wiring Installation

Pictorial diagram of an aircraft electrical

Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Wiring Installation

Schematic Diagrams

A schematic diagram is a
simplified illustration that
shows the principles of
operation of a system. It
doesn’t depict parts in their
actual appearance or
function but indicates the
relative positions of
components. Schematic
diagrams are especially Schematic
useful for troubleshooting. diagram.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Aircraft Lighting Systems

Aircraft lighting systems are designed to provide illumination for

both exterior and interior purposes. Exterior lights support
operations like nighttime landings, ice inspection, and collision
avoidance. Interior lights illuminate instruments, cockpits, cabins,
and other crew and passenger areas. Specialized lights, such as
indicator and warning lights, display the operational status of
equipment.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Aircraft Lighting Systems

Exterior Lights

Aircraft exterior lights include

position lights, anticollision
lights, landing lights, and taxi
lights. Some of these lights are
mandatory for night operations.
Additionally, exterior lights like
wing inspection lights are
beneficial for specialized flying
operations.
Circuit breaker
panel.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Aircraft Lighting Systems
Position Lights
Position lights are required for aircraft operating at night as per Title 14
of the Code of Federal Regulations. A set of these lights includes one red
light, one green light, and one white light.

A left-wing tip position light A right-wing tip position

(red) and a white strobe light, also known as a
light. navigation light.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Aircraft Lighting Systems

Anticollision Lights

An anticollision light system may include

one or more rotating beam lights,
typically installed on top of the fuselage
or tail. These lights are positioned to
avoid impairing the crew’s vision or
reducing the visibility of position lights.
Large transport aircraft usually have an
anticollision light on both the top and
bottom of the aircraft. Anticollision
lights.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Aircraft Lighting Systems

Navigation light system

schematic.
Aircraft Electrical
Systems
Aircraft Lighting Systems

Landing lights. Taxi lights.

Aircraft Electrical
Aircraft Lighting Systems
Systems
Interior Lights

Aircraft interior lighting systems

provide illumination for the cabin,
often with both white and red-light
settings. Commercial aircraft have
several lighting systems, including
main cabin lighting, individual
lights for passengers to read when
main lights are off, and
emergency floor lighting to guide
passengers during an emergency. Interior cockpit and cabin light
system.
Taxi light
circuit.
Piston Engine Construction
By: Chatchai Prasertsuk
Issue date: November 1,2022 Rev.00
Piston Engine
Construction
Piston Engine
Construction
Components of an Opposed-Type Aircraft
Piston Engine
Piston Engine
Crankcase
Construction
Piston Engine
Crankcase
Construction
iston Engine Construction
Crankcase
Piston Engine
Crankshaft
Construction
Piston Engine
Components of a Crankshaft
Construction
Piston Engine
Crankshaft Assembly
Construction
iston Engine Construction
Accessory Section
Piston Engine
pes of External Propeller Drive Gears
Construction
iston Engine Construction
pes of Propeller Reduction Gear Driving
Piston Engine
pes of Propeller Reduction Gear Driving
Construction
iston Engine Construction
pical external Propeller Drive Gear System
iston Engine Construction
FADEC System Layout
Piston Engine
iprocating Diesel Engine Control System EECU
Construction
Piston Engine
procating Diesel Engine Control System EECU (I)
Construction
Piston Engine
Piston Engine Starting
Construction
Piston Engine
Typical Starter Installtion
Construction
Piston Engine
imple engine starting system
Construction
Piston Engine
iston Engine Ignition System
Construction
Piston Engine
Magneto Ignition System
Construction
Piston Engine
Magneto Ignition System
Construction
Piston Engine
Magneto Ignition System
Construction
Piston Engine
Magneto Ignition System
Construction

Dual-Type Magneto
Piston Engine
Magneto Ignition System
Construction

Flange-Mounted Rotating-Magnet Aircraft Magneto Typical Single-Type Magneto for Light Aircraft
Piston Engine
Ignition Harness
Construction

Typical Spark Plugs Lead Terminals Typical Spark Plugs and Leads
Piston Engine
Spark Plugs
Construction
Common Installation Problems Pertaining to Spark
Plug Reach
Piston Engine
Spark Plugs
Construction

Typical fault diagnostic of spark plugs (I)

Piston Engine
Spark Plugs
Construction

Typical fault diagnostic of spark plugs (II)

Piston Engine
Induction Systems
Construction

1.NACA Inlet

Air Intake Manifold

Piston Engine
Induction Systems
Construction

Air Filter Assembly Air Filter Types and Cases

Piston Engine
Induction
Construction
Systems

Air Induction System Attached to a Turbocharger Assembly

iston Engine Construction
Piston Engine Exhaust System
ston Engine Construction
iston Engine Exhaust System

Short Stacks on a Single Row Radial Engine

Piston Engine
Piston Engine Exhaust
Construction
System

6-Cylinder Horizontally Opposed Aircraft Engine Exhaust System

iston Engine Construction
Cooling System

Inter Cylinder Baffles

Piston Engine
Cooling
Construction
System

Engine Seals Cooling Airflow for Horizontally

Opposed Engine Installation
iston Engine Construction
Augmentor System

Augmentor Tube Installation Exhaust Augmentor Tube Installation

iston Engine Construction
Supercharging

Airflow through a Single-Stage, One-Speed Supercharger

Piston Engine
Superchargi
Construction
ng

Turbo Supercharged Engine

Piston Engine
Supercharg
Construction
ing

Engine Driven Supercharger

Piston Engine
Turbochargi
Construction
ng
Piston Engine
Turbochargi
Construction
ng

Exploded- and Cross Section View of a Turbocharger

Piston Engine
Turbochargi
Construction
ng

Turbocharger Control Systems (I)

Piston Engine
Turbochargi
Construction
ng

Turbocharger Control System (II) Turbocharger Control System (III)

Piston Engine
Turbochargi
Construction
ng

Turbocharger Control System (IV) Typical Turbocharger System of a General Aviation Aircraft
Piston Engine
Turbocharg
Construction
ing

See Level Boosted Turbocharger System Turbo-compound System

Piston Engine
Aircraft
Construction
Lubricants
Piston Engine
Aircraft
Construction
Lubricants

Function of Lubricants
Piston Engine
Aircraft
Construction
Lubricants
Piston Engine
Aircraft
Construction
Lubricants
Piston Engine
Aircraft
Construction
Lubricants
Piston Engine
Aircraft
Construction
Lubricants
Piston Engine
Aircraft
Construction
Lubricants
Piston Engine
Aircraft
Construction
Lubricants

Characteristics of Aircraft Engine Lubricating Oils (Example)

Piston Engine
Lubrication
Construction
Systems
Piston Engine
Lubrication
Construction
Systems

Splash Lubrication System of In-Line Engines

Piston Engine
Lubrication
Construction
Systems
Piston Engine
Oil
Construction
Cooler

Oil Cooler Cross Section with Flow Control Valve Oil Cooler with Flow Control Valve
Piston Engine
Oil
Construction
Cooler

Function of a Flow Control Valve

Piston Engine
Engine Indicating
Construction
Systems
Piston Engine
Engine Indicating
Construction
Systems

Piston Engine Indication System (Example)

Piston Engine
Engine Indicating Systems
Construction

Engine Indication with Analog and Digital Indicators Engine Indication with Limit Scale
Piston Engine
Engine Indicating
Construction
Systems

Example of Instrument Markings

Piston Engine
Engine Indicating
Construction
Systems

Types of EGT Indicators

Piston Engine Instruments (Carburetor Temperature)
Piston Engine
Engine Indicating
Construction
Systems

EGT Indication System (Functional Diagram) EGT Indication System (Piston Engine)
Piston Engine
Engine Indicating
Construction
Systems

Fuel Flow and Fuel Pressure Fuel Flow Meter Indicators

Piston Engine
Engine Indicating
Construction
Systems

Manifold Pressure and Cylinder Head Temperature (CHT)

Piston Engine
Engine Indicating
Construction
Systems