NUMBER THEORY

CPE203
Number Theory
Number theory is a field of mathematics focused on the
properties and relationships of numbers, especially integers.
Numbers are fundamental mathematical entities used for
counting. Since ancient times, they have captivated
mathematicians worldwide.
In this lesson on Number Theory, we’ll explore the basics of
number theory, its history, different number systems, types
of numbers, operations involving numbers, arithmetic
processes, and much more in detail.
History of number theory
The history of number
theory traces back to
ancient Mesopotamia
around 1800 BC, where
discoveries like Plimpton
322 highlighted early studies
in Pythagorean triplets and
Babylonian astronomy.
History of number theory
Pythagoras expanded on this by exploring
triplets, which later influenced Euclidean
geometry and arithmetic postulates. Indian
mathematicians such as Aryabhatta and
Brahmagupta made significant
advancements, while in the European
Renaissance, figures like Pierre de Fermat
contributed theories on perfect numbers
and primes, and Leonhard Euler laid the
groundwork for analytical number theory.
History of number theory
Joseph-Louis Lagrange and Adrien-Marie Legendre
refined theories on prime numbers, and Carl
Friedrich Gauss contributed to quadratic
reciprocity and computational techniques. These
foundational contributions have shaped modern
number theory, influencing various mathematical
fields and practical applications.
Classification
In number theory, numbers are divided into
various classifications, each with distinct
properties and uses. Here’s an explanation
of each type, an additional example, and an
exercise for each:
Classification
Even Numbers: Even numbers divide evenly by
2, leaving no remainder, making them distinct in
the world of whole numbers.
Even Numbers – 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20,
22 . . .
List the next three even numbers after 98.
Classification
Odd Numbers: Odd numbers cannot be divided
evenly by 2; they always leave a remainder,
distinguishing them from even numbers in
math.
Odd Numbers – 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17,
19…..
List the next three odd numbers after 23.
Classification
Square Numbers: Square numbers are
obtained by multiplying a number by itself.
For example, 3 squared (3²) is 3 multiplied
by 3, which equals 9.
Square Numbers – 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64,
81,100 . . .
Classification
Cube Numbers: Cube numbers are derived
by multiplying a number by itself three
times, like 3 cubed (3³), which equals 27.
They represent the volume of a cube with
side lengths equal to the number.
Cube Numbers – 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343,
512 . . .
Classification
Prime numbers: Prime numbers have just two
factors: 1 and the number itself. They can't be
divided evenly by any other numbers, making
them unique in the world of whole
Prime Numbers – 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23,
29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47,53, 59, 61 . . .numbers.
Classification
Modulo 4 Numbers: If a number divides by 4 and
leaves a leftover of 1, it is said to be 1 (modulo 4).In a
similar vein, a number is said to be 3 (modulo 4) if its
division by 4 yields a remainder of 3.
1 (modulo 4) Numbers – 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, . . .
3 (modulo 4) Numbers – 7, 11, 15, 19, . . .
Classification
Fibonacci Numbers: Fibonacci numbers
start with 1 and 1. Each subsequent
number is found by adding the two
previous numbers together.
Fibonacci Numbers -1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21,
34, 55, 89. . .
Classification
Triangular Numbers: Triangular numbers are
those that, when represented as equilateral
triangles with one element at the top row and
increasing by one in each subsequent row,
follow a pattern like 1, 3, 6, and so on.
Triangular Numbers – 3, 6, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45,. . .
Applications of Number
Theory in Discrete
Mathematics
Cryptography: RSA cryptography and other
modern encryption methods depend on the
difficulty of factoring large prime numbers.
Public-key cryptography uses modular
arithmetic and prime number properties to
ensure secure communication.
Applications of Number
Theory in Discrete
Mathematics
Error Detection and Correction: During data
transmission, errors can occur. To detect and
correct these errors, we use techniques like
cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs) and checksums,
which are based on number theory concepts.
Applications of Number
Theory in Discrete
Mathematics
Barcodes and UPC Codes: Checksum digits,
computed using modular arithmetic, play a vital
role in barcodes and UPCs. They serve as a
safeguard, confirming that the encoded data
remains intact and error-free throughout
scanning and transmission processes, ensuring
accuracy in product identification.
Applications of Number
Theory in Discrete
Mathematics
Games and Puzzles: Games such as Rubik's
Cube and Sudoku rely heavily on number
patterns. Utilizing concepts from number theory
is essential for solving these puzzles efficiently
and arriving at accurate solutions, showcasing
the practical applications of mathematical
principles in recreational activities.
Applications of Number
Theory in Discrete
Mathematics
Compression Algorithms: In data compression
methods like Huffman coding, number theory
concepts are applied to make data storage more
efficient. These techniques help represent data
in a way that reduces the amount of space it
takes up while preserving its information.
Problems and Solutions
Problem 1: Find the Greatest Common Divisor(G.C.D ) of a number
30 and 52
Solution:
Divisors of 30 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30
Divisors of 52 are 1, 2, 4, 13, 26, 52
The common divisors in 30 and 52 is 2
Therefore, the G. C.D of 30 and 52 is 2
gcd(30,52)= 2
Problems and Solutions
Problem 2: Find the common factors of 10 and 16
Solution:
Factors of 10 are:
2 x 5 =10 1 x 10 = 10
Therefore, the factors are 1, 2, 5 and 10
Factors of 16 are
4 x 4 = 16 1 x 16 = 16 2 x 8 = 16
Therefore, the factors of 16 are as follows: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16
Then, the common factors are 1 and 2.
Problems and Solutions
Problem 3: Show that the greatest factor of a number is the number itself.
Solution:
Assume the number 24
The factors of 24 are
1 x 24 =24 12 x 2 = 24 8 x 3 = 24 6 x 4 = 24

The factors of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24

From this, we can say that 24 is the greatest factor of a number 24.
Problems and Solutions
Problem 3: Show that the greatest factor of a number is the number itself.
Solution:
Assume the number 24
The factors of 24 are
1 x 24 =24 12 x 2 = 24 8 x 3 = 24 6 x 4 = 24

The factors of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24

From this, we can say that 24 is the greatest factor of a number 24.
Divisibility
It is easy to add and multiply natural numbers. If we extend our focus
to all integers, then subtraction is also easy (we need the negative
numbers so we can subtract any number from any other number,
even larger from smaller). Division is the first operation that presents
a challenge. If we wanted to extend our set of numbers so any
division would be possible (maybe excluding division by 0) we would
need to look at the rational numbers (the set of all numbers which
can be written as fractions). This would be going too far, so we will
refuse this option.
Divisibility
Divisibility
Divisibility
Example