DATA STRUCTURE:

ALA:1
Name:Shivani Jani
Enrollment Number:20231105060065
Class:E22
 INSERTION SORT
• while some elements unsorted:
• Using linear search, find the location in the sorted
portion where the 1st element of the unsorted
portion should be inserted
• Move all the elements after the insertion location up
one position to make space for the new element
45

38 45
60 60
66 45
66 79 47 13 74 36 21 94 22 57 16 29 81

the fourth iteration of this loop is shown here

An insertion sort partitions the array into two regions
An insertion sort of an array of five integers
 INSERTION SORT ALGORITHM
public void insertionSort(Comparable[] arr) {
for (int i = 1; i < arr.length; ++i) {
Comparable temp = arr[i];
int pos = i;
// Shuffle up all sorted items > arr[i]
while (pos > 0 &&
arr[pos-1].compareTo(temp) > 0) {
arr[pos] = arr[pos–1];
pos--;
} // end while
// Insert the current item
arr[pos] = temp;
}
}
 INSERTION SORT ANALYSIS
public void insertionSort(Comparable[] arr) {
for (int i = 1; i < arr.length; ++i) { outer loop
Comparable temp = arr[i];
int pos = i; outer times
// Shuffle up all sorted items > arr[i]
while (pos > 0 &&
arr[pos-1].compareTo(temp) > 0) {
arr[pos] = arr[pos–1];
inner loop pos--;
} // end while
// Insert the current iteminner times
arr[pos] = temp;
}
}
INSERTION SORT: NUMBER OF
COMPARISONS

# of Sorted Best case Worst case

Elements
0 0 0
1 1 1
2 1 2
… … …
n-1 1 n-1
n-1 n(n-1)/2

Remark: we only count comparisons of elements in the array.

 INSERTION SORT: COST
FUNCTION
• 1 operation to initialize the outer loop
• The outer loop is evaluated n-1 times
• 5 instructions (including outer loop comparison and
increment)
• Total cost of the outer loop: 5(n-1)
• How many times the inner loop is evaluated is affected by
the state of the array to be sorted
• Best case: the array is already completely sorted so no
“shifting” of array elements is required.
• We only test the condition of the inner loop once (2
operations = 1 comparison + 1 element comparison), and
the body is never executed
• Requires 2(n-1) operations.
 INSERTION SORT: COST
FUNCTION
• Worst case: the array is sorted in reverse order (so each
item has to be moved to the front of the array)
• In the i-th iteration of the outer loop, the inner loop will
perform 4i+1 operations
• Therefore, the total cost of the inner loop will be 2n(n-1)+n-
1
• Time cost:
• Best case: 7(n-1)
• Worst case: 5(n-1)+2n(n-1)+n-1

• What about the number of moves?

• Best case: 2(n-1) moves
• Worst case: 2(n-1)+n(n-1)/2
 INSERTION SORT: AVERAGE
CASE
• Is it closer to the best case (n comparisons)?
• The worst case (n * (n-1) / 2) comparisons?
• It turns out that when random data is sorted, insertion
sort is usually closer to the worst case
• Around n * (n-1) / 4 comparisons
• Calculating the average number of comparisons more
exactly would require us to state assumptions about what
the “average” input data set looked like
• This would, for example, necessitate discussion of how
items were distributed over the array
• Exact calculation of the number of operations required to
perform even simple algorithms can be challenging
(for instance, assume that each initial order of elements
has the same probability to occur)
 BUBBLE SORT

• Simplest sorting algorithm

• Idea:
• 1. Set flag = false
• 2. Traverse the array and compare pairs of two consecutive
elements
• 1.1 If E1  E2 -> OK (do nothing)
• 1.2 If E1 > E2 then Swap(E1, E2) and set flag = true
• 3. repeat 1. and 2. while flag=true.
 BUBBLE SORT
1 1 23 2 56 9 8 10 100
2 1 2 23 56 9 8 10 100
3 1 2 23 9 56 8 10 100
4 1 2 23 9 8 56 10 100
5 1 2 23 9 8 10 56 100
---- finish the first traversal ----
1 1 2 23 9 8 10 56 100
2 1 2 9 23 8 10 56 100
3 1 2 9 8 23 10 56 100
4 1 2 9 8 10 23 56 100
---- finish the second traversal ----
…
 BUBBLE SORT

public void bubbleSort (Comparable[] arr) {

boolean isSorted = false;
while (!isSorted) {
isSorted = true;
for (i = 0; i<arr.length-1; i++)
if (arr[i].compareTo(arr[i+1]) > 0) {
Comparable tmp = arr[i];
arr[i] = arr[i+1];
arr[i+1] = tmp;
isSorted = false;
}
}
}
 BUBBLE SORT: ANALYSIS

• After the first traversal (iteration of the main loop) – the

maximum element is moved to its place (the end of
array)
• After the i-th traversal – largest i elements are in their
places

• Time cost, number of comparisons, number of moves ->

Assignment 4
O NOTATION
 O-NOTATION INTRODUCTION
• Exact counting of operations is often difficult
(and tedious), even for simple algorithms
• Often, exact counts are not useful due to other
factors, e.g. the language/machine used, or
the implementation of the algorithm (different
types of operations do not take the same time
anyway)
• O-notation is a mathematical language for
evaluating the running-time (and memory
usage) of algorithms
 GROWTH RATE OF AN
ALGORITHM
• We often want to compare the performance of
algorithms
• When doing so we generally want to know how
they perform when the problem size (n) is large
• Since cost functions are complex, and may be
difficult to compute, we approximate them
using O notation
 EXAMPLE OF A COST
FUNCTION
• Cost Function: tA(n) = n2 + 20n + 100
• Which term dominates?
• It depends on the size of n
• n = 2, tA(n) = 4 + 40 + 100
• The constant, 100, is the dominating term
• n = 10, tA(n) = 100 + 200 + 100
• 20n is the dominating term
• n = 100, tA(n) = 10,000 + 2,000 + 100
• n2 is the dominating term
• n = 1000, tA(n) = 1,000,000 + 20,000 + 100
• n2 is the dominating term
 BIG O NOTATION

• O notation approximates the cost function of

an algorithm
• The approximation is usually good enough,
especially when considering the efficiency of
algorithm as n gets very large
• Allows us to estimate rate of function growth
• Instead of computing the entire cost function
we only need to count the number of times
that an algorithm executes its barometer
instruction(s)
• The instruction that is executed the most number of
times in an algorithm (the highest order term)
 BIG O NOTATION
• Given functions tA(n) and g(n), we can say that
the efficiency of an algorithm is of order g(n) if
there are positive constants c and m such that
• tA(n) · c.g(n) for all n ¸ m
• we write
• tA(n) is O(g(n)) and we say that
• tA(n) is of order g(n)
• e.g. if an algorithm’s running time is 3n + 12
then the algorithm is O(n). If c is 3 and m is 12
then:
• 4 * n  3n + 12 for all n  12
 IN ENGLISH…
• The cost function of an algorithm A, tA(n), can be
approximated by another, simpler, function g(n) which is
also a function with only 1 variable, the data size n.
• The function g(n) is selected such that it represents an
upper bound on the efficiency of the algorithm A (i.e. an
upper bound on the value of tA(n)).
• This is expressed using the big-O notation: O (g(n)).
• For example, if we consider the time efficiency of
algorithm A then “tA(n) is O(g(n))” would mean that
• A cannot take more “time” than O(g(n)) to execute or that
(more than c.g(n) for some constant c)
• the cost function tA(n) grows at most as fast as g(n)
 THE GENERAL IDEA IS …
• when using Big-O notation, rather than giving a
precise figure of the cost function using a specific
data size n
• express the behaviour of the algorithm as its data
size n grows very large
• so ignore
• lower order terms and
• constants
 O NOTATION EXAMPLES
• All these expressions are O(n):
• n, 3n, 61n + 5, 22n – 5, …
• All these expressions are O(n2):
• n2, 9 n2, 18 n2+ 4n – 53, …
• All these expressions are O(n log n):
• n(log n), 5n(log 99n), 18 + (4n – 2)(log (5n +
3)), …
THANK YOU