Chapter 4

Signaling For Analog

Telephony
 1 Introduction
• Signaling conveys the intelligence needed
for one subscriber to interconnect with any
other in the PSTN.
• Signaling tells the switch that a subscriber
desires service.
• It gives the local switch the data necessary
to identify the required distant subscriber
and hence to route the call properly.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 2
 Continue…
• It provides supervision of the call along
its path.
• It gives the subscriber certain status
information, such as dial tone, busy
tone, and ringing.
• Signaling information can take place from
subscriber to switch or between (and
among) switches.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 3
 Continue…
• Signaling information can be transmitted
by means such as
1. Duration of pulses
2. Combination of pulses
3. Frequency of signal
4. Combination of frequencies
5. Presence or absence of a signal
6. Binary code
7. For dc systems, the direction or level
of transmitted current
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 4
 Continue…
• There are several classifications of
signaling:
1. General:
a) Subscriber or Intra-exchange signaling.
b) Inter-switch or Inter-exchange signaling.
2. Functional:
a) Audible–visual (call progress and alerting).
b) Supervisory signaling.
c) Address signaling.
d) Inter-register signaling.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 5
 Continue…
3. Channel:
a) Channel Associated Signaling (CAS).
b) Channel Disassociated Signaling or
Common Channel Signaling (CCS).
4. Direction:
a) Forward signaling.
b) Backward signaling.

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 6

 Continue…

A functional breakdown of signaling

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 7

2 Forward and Backward Signals

• Call-control signals are categorized as of

Forward and Backward signals.
1. Forward signals are sent in the direction in
which the call is set up (from S1 to S2), such as
the request-for-service signal and the digits of
the called number.
2. Backward signals are sent in the opposite
direction such as dial-tone, ringing-tone, and
answer are backward signals.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 8
 2 Supervisory Signaling
• It is also called Line Signaling.
• It provides information on line or circuit
condition and indicates whether a circuit
is in use (busy) or idle.
• It informs the switch and interconnecting
trunk circuits whether a calling party is
“off hook” or “on hook” or whether a called
party is “off hook” or “on hook”.

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 9

 Continue…
• Supervisory information–status must be
maintained end to end on every telephone
call.
• Supervisory signaling informs the switch
when to start and stop the call duration
metering to establish call charges.
• As we know, dialing a subscriber line is
merely interruption of the subscriber loop’s
off-hook condition, often called “make and
break”.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 10
 Continue…
• The “make” is a current flow condition (off-
hook), and the “break” is the no-current
condition (on-hook).
• Supervisory signaling can be divided into two
groups:
1. The forward supervision signals: Request
and disconnect by calling party, request the
start or end of a connection, flash, clear
forward, and seizure.
2. The backward supervision signals: Answer
and disconnect by called party, busy tone, and
clear backward.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 11
 Continue…
• But, how do we know the difference
between supervisory and dialing?
• Primarily by duration, and the amplitude
and direction of the current flow.
• By duration we mean, the on-hook interval
of a dial pulse which is relatively short and
is distinguishable from an on-hook
disconnect signal (subscriber hangs up).
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 12
 Continue…

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 13

 3 Audible-Visual Signaling
• Is a category of signaling functions inform the
calling subscriber regarding call progress. It
has two classes:
1. The alerting signals: are forward signals
used to informs the called subscriber of a call
waiting (ringing), or an extended “off-hook”
condition of his or her handset (off-hook
warning).
2. Progress Tones: These are audible
backward signals (dial-tone, ringing-tone,
busy-tone) sent by an exchange to the calling
subscriber, indicating the progress of a call.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 14
 4 Address Signaling
• These signals are also known as
digits or selection signals or register
signals.
• They are forward signals that are sent
by the calling subscriber when dialing
the called party number (DTMF).
• Address signaling takes place while
the telephone is off-hook.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 15
 Continue…
• If more than one switch is involved in
the call setup, signaling is required
between switches (both address and
supervisory).
• Address signaling between switches
in conventional systems is called
inter-register signaling .

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 16

 5 Inter-switch signaling
• Is the signaling required to
communicate switches with each
other.
• It is also called inter-exchange
signaling or Link-By-Link Signaling.
• It includes address and supervision
signaling between switches.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 17
 6 Subscriber Signaling
• Is the signaling between a
subscriber and the local
exchange only.
• It is also called intra-exchange
signaling or End-to-End Signaling.
• It includes forward and backward
supervisory signaling, audible
signaling, and address signaling.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 18
 7.1 Channel Associated
Signaling (CAS)
• In which the signaling information were
carried by the same medium (subscriber
line, trunk) on the same or different
channel (time or frequency slot) that
carried the speech during the call.
• In other words, the signaling goes right
along with the speech signal it is
associated with, on the same medium.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 19
 Continue…

Channel Associated Signaling (CAS)

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 20

 Continue…

Channel Associated Signaling (CAS)

As shown, the signaling channel is separate, but associated. With
conventional analog signaling, it would be a single solid line,
where the signaling is embedded with its associated traffic.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 21
 7.2 Common Channel Signaling
(CCS)
• Signaling may or may not go on the
same medium or path.
• Signaling information is transmitted on a
separate or dedicated channel (line,
frequency slot, time slot).
• If the signaling is performed through a
signaling network on separate circuits or
medium then it is called fully
disassociated channel signaling.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 22
 Continue…

Common Channel Signaling (CCS)

signaling is conveyed on a separate circuit (or time slot)

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 23

 Continue…

Fully disassociated channel signaling

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 24

 8 AC Signaling
• Traditionally, ac signaling
systems are divided into three
categories:
1. Low-frequency system
2. In-band system
3. Out-band (out-of-band) system.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 25
8.1 Low-Frequency AC Signaling
Systems
• An ac signaling system operating below
the limits of the conventional voice
channel (i.e., < 300 Hz) are termed low
frequency.
• Low-frequency signaling systems are one-
frequency systems, typically 50 Hz, 80 Hz,
135 Hz, or 200 Hz.
• low-frequency signaling is limited to
metallic-pair transmission systems.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 26
 8.2 In-Band Signaling
• The conventional voice channel occupies the
band of frequencies from 300 Hz to 3400 Hz.
• In-band signaling refers to signaling systems
using an audio tone, or tones inside the
conventional voice channel, to convey
signaling information.
• As the term implies, in-band signaling is
where signaling is carried out directly in the
voice channel.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 27
 Continue…
• In-band signaling is broken down into three
categories:
(1) One frequency (SF or single frequency).
• Used for supervision such as idle tone.
(2) Two frequency (2VF or two voice
frequency).
• Is used for both supervision (line signaling)
and address signaling.
(3) Multi-frequency (MF).
• Is used for inter-register signaling.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 28
 8.3 Out-of-Band Signaling
• In which the supervisory information is
transmitted out of band (i.e., above 3400
Hz).
• It is a single-frequency system.
• Some out-of-band systems use “tone on
when idle,” indicating the on-hook
condition, whereas others use “tone off”.
• Out-of-band signaling is used exclusively
on carrier systems, not on wire trunks.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 29
 Continue…

Single-frequency signaling: (A) in-band; (B) out-of-band.

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 30

 Signaling For Intra-exchange
Call
Example:
• In this example, subscriber S1 would like to
communicate with subscriber S2.
• Both S1 and S2 are served by a local
exchange X.
• The directory number of called subscriber
S2 is 347-9654.
• The request will proceed as follow:
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 31
 Continue…

An inter-exchange call signaling diagram

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 32
 Continue…
• Calling subscriber S1 starts by going off-
hook which is interpreted by the exchange
as a request for service.
• In response, the exchange returns dial-
tone, indicating that it is ready to receive
digits.
• S1 then sends the digits of the called
number, using the dial or the keypad of the
telephone.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 33
 Continue…
• After receipt of 3-4-7, the exchange
recognizes one of its exchange codes
and thus knows that it is the destination
exchange for the call.
• The exchange can identify the called
subscriber S2 after receipt of the
complete called number and checks
whether S2 is free.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 34
 Continue…
• Assuming that this is the case, it sends
a ringing signal to alert S2 and informs
S1 about the call progress with a
ringing-tone.
• When S2 goes off-hook, an answer signal
is generated.
• The exchange then sets up a path in its
switch block between the subscriber lines.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 35
 Continue…
• The conversation starts, and the exchange
begins to charge S1 for the call.
• At the end of the call, the subscribers put
the handsets back in the cradles of the
telephones.
• The signals generated by these actions
from the calling and called subscribers are
known as, respectively, the clear-forward
and the clear-back signal.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 36
 Signaling For Inter-exchange
Call
• Example:
• S1 belongs to exchange A and would like
to communicate with S2 which belongs to
exchange C.
• Assume that S1 received the dial tone
from Exchange A and in return, S1 sent
the telephone number of S2 to the
exchange A.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 37
 An Inter-exchange call signaling diagram
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 38
 Continue…
• When exchange A receive the called
number from S1, it will decides to route
the call via intermediate exchange B.
• Exchange A seizes an available trunk T1
and sends a seizure signal on the trunk.
• Exchange B responds with a proceed-to-
send signal, indicating that it is ready to
receive the digits of the called number.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 39
 Continue…
• Exchange A sends the digits and then sets
up a path in its switch block between the
subscriber line of S1 and T1.
• When exchange B has received the
complete called number, it seizes an
available trunk T2 to destination exchange
C and sends a seizure signal on the trunk.

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 40

 Continue…
• Exchange C responds with a wink
signal, after which exchange B sends
the digits of the called number and
cuts through a path between trunks T1
and T2.
• Exchange C then checks whether
called subscriber S2 is idle.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 41
 Continue…

Supervision signals for a call

a) sent by outgoing exchange B and b) sent by incoming exchange C

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 42

 Continue…
• If this is the case, C sends a ringing signal
to S2 and ringing-tone on trunk T2.
• Because exchanges A and B have cut
through, there is a connection between the
calling subscriber S1 and exchange C, and
subscriber S1 hears a ringing-tone.
• When S2 answers, exchange C cuts through
a path between trunk T2 and subscriber S2.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 43
 Continue…
• It also sends an answer signal on T2, and
exchange B repeats the signal on trunk T1.
• Assuming that originating exchange A is
responsible for charging the call, it
establishes a billing record that includes
the calling and called numbers, the date,
and the time of answer.
• The conversation now begins.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 44
 Continue…
• In this example, called party S2
hangs up first.
• Exchange C sends a clear-back
signal to exchange B, which
repeats the signal to exchange A.
• But, intra-exchange calls, and inter-
exchange calls are usually
controlled by the calling party, then
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 45
 Continue…
• On receipt of the clear-back, exchange A
stops charging and enters the time when it
received the clear-back in the billing
record of the call.
• It also starts a 30–60 second timer. It then
awaits a clear-forward from calling party
S1, or the expiration of the timer, and
initiates the release of the connection
when one of these events occurs.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 46
 Continue…
• Exchange A releases its path
between S1 and trunk T1 and sends a
clear-forward signal to exchange B,
which releases its path between T1
and T2 and repeats the clear-forward
to exchange C.
• This exchange then clears its path
between T2 and called subscriber S2.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 47
 Continue…
• When exchanges B and C have
completed the release of, respectively,
T1 and T2, they send release-guard
signals to, respectively, exchanges A
and B.
• When A and B receive the release-
guard, they know that they can again
seize, respectively, T1 and T2 for new
calls.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 48
Introduction To Transmission
For
Telephony
 1 Purpose and Scope
• Transmission: deals with the delivery of a
quality electrical signal from point X to point Y.
• The basic building block for transmission is
the telephone channel or voice channel (VC).
• VC implies spectral occupancy, whether the
voice path is over wire, radio, or coaxial cable
or over a fiber-optic system.
• Theoretically, VC occupies the band of
frequencies from 0 to 4 kHz.
• Practically, VC occupies the band of
frequencies between 300 and 3400 Hz.

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 50

 Continue…
• There are five basic transmission
impairments we must deal with
regarding the voice channel:
1. Attenuation distortion.
2. Phase distortion.
3. Noise.
4. Echo.
5. Singing.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 51
 2.1 Attenuation Distortion
• Is the result of imperfect
amplitude-frequency response of
the voice path (transmission
channel).
• It can be avoided if all frequencies
within the passband are subjected
to exactly the same loss (or gain).
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 52
 2.2 Phase Distortion
• A voice channel may be regarded as a band-
pass filter (radio channel).
• A signal takes a finite time to pass through a
telecommunication network which is called
delay time.
• This time is a function of the velocity of
propagation and the operating frequency,
which varies with the media involved.
• Absolute delay is the delay a signal
experiences while passing through the
channel end-to-end at a reference frequency.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 53
 Continue…
• But we see that the propagation time is
different for different frequencies, with the
wave-front of one frequency arriving before
the wave-front of another in the passband.
• A modulated signal will not be distorted on
passing through the channel if the phase shift
changes uniformly with frequency, whereas if
the phase shift is nonlinear with respect to
frequency, the output signal is distorted
compared to the input.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 54
 2.3 Noise
• Is any undesired signal in a
communication circuit.
• Noise is broken down into four
categories:
1. Thermal noise.
2. Inter-modulation noise.
3. Crosstalk.
4. Impulse noise.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 55
 Continue…
• Thermal Noise: occurs in all
transmission media and all
communication equipment, including
passive devices.
• It arises from random electron motion
and is characterized by a uniform
distribution of energy over the frequency
spectrum with a Gaussian distribution of
levels.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 56
 Continue…
• Every equipment element and the transmission
medium proper contribute thermal noise to a
communication system if the temperature of that
element or medium is above absolute zero.
• Inter-modulation noise: is the result of the
presence of inter-modulation products. If two
signals with frequencies f1 and f2 are passed
through a nonlinear device or medium, the result
will contain IM products that are spurious
frequency energy components.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 57
 Continue…
• Crosstalk: refers to unwanted coupling
between signal paths.
• There are essentially three causes of crosstalk:
1. Electrical coupling between transmission
media, such as between wire pairs on a voice
frequency (VF) cable system
2. Poor control of frequency response (defective
filters or poor filter design).
3. Nonlinear performance in analog (FDM)
multiplex systems.

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 58

 Continue…
• There are two types of crosstalk:
1. Intelligible: where at least four words
are intelligible to the listener from
extraneous conversations in a 7-sec
period.
2. Unintelligible: crosstalk resulting from
any other form of disturbing effects of
one channel on another.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 59
 Continue…
• Impulse noise: is noncontinuous,
consisting of irregular pulses or noise
“spikes” of short duration, broad spectral
density, and relatively high amplitude.
• In the language of the trade, these spikes
are often called “hits.” A technician may
say that the circuit is getting “hit up”.

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 60

 2.4 Echo
• Echo: in telephone systems is the return of a
talker’s voice.
• To be an impairment, the returned voice must
suffer some noticeable delay. Thus we can
say that echo is a reflection of the voice.
• The cause of echo is impedance mismatches
that might be present any place in the
electrical telephone connection.
• It affects the talker more than the listener.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 61
 2.5 Singing
• Singing: is the result of sustained oscillations
due to positive feedback in telephone
amplifiers or amplifying circuits.
• Singing may be regarded as echo that is
completely out of control. This can occur at
the frequency at which the circuit is resonant.
• The cause of echo is impedance mismatches
between the balancing network of the hybrid
and its two-wire connection associated with
the subscriber loop.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 62
 3 Two-Wire and Four-Wire
Transmission
• A telephone conversation inherently
requires transmission in both directions.
• Two-wire transmission: when both
directions are carried on the same pair of
wires such as subscriber loop.
• Two-wire operation: in which oppositely
directed portions of a single telephone
conversation occur over the same
electrical transmission channel or path.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 63
 Continue…

Simplified schematic of two-wire/four-wire operation

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 64

 Continue…
• Carrier and radio systems require that
oppositely directed portions of a single
conversation occur over separate
transmission channels or paths.
• Four-wire transmission: in which the
transmit and receive signals are carrier
on different lines or frequency slot, or
time slot.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 65
 Continue…
• Thus we have two wires for the transmit
path and two wires for the receive path, or
a total of four wires for a full-duplex (two-
way) telephone conversation.
• Trunk circuit is an example of four-wire
transmission.
• Hybrid: is a transformer network that
converts two-wire to four-wire transmission
and vice versa.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 66
 Continue…
• Present practice with many telephone
companies and administrations is to
convert the two-wire subscriber loop, after
it terminates in the mainframe, to either a
T1 or E1 digital format, which, of course is
four-wire.
• Because each subscriber has his or her
own Hybrid with an incoming Analog-to-
Digital Conversion (ADC).

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 67

 4 Multiplexing
• Is the process of combining of two or
more signals (voice channels) into a
single wave from which the signals
can be individually recovered.
• Of course the medium has to be able
to accommodate the required
bandwidth of the multiplexed signals.

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 68

 Continue…
• On a wire pair we might combine 24, 30,
or 48 channels.
• On LOS microwave we can commonly
carry 1800 analog channels or hundreds
of digital channels.
• On fiber optics we can carry thousands
of digital channels.

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 69

 Continue…
• There are essentially two generic
ways we can multiplex voice
channels:
1. In the frequency domain using
frequency division multiplex
(FDM).
2. In the time domain using time
division multiplex (TDM).
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 70
 Continue…
• FDM: is a method of allocating a unique band of
frequencies in a comparatively wideband
frequency spectrum of the transmission medium
to each communication channel on a continuous
time basis.
• TDM: is a method of putting multiple data
streams in a single signal by separating the
signal into many segments, each having a very
short duration. Each individual data stream is
reassembled at the receiving end based on the
timing.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 71
 Chapter 6

Long Distance Networks

 1 General
• The design of a long-distance
network involves basically three
considerations:
1. Routing scheme given inlet and outlet
points and their traffic intensities.
2. switching scheme and associated
signaling.
3. Transmission plan.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 73
 Continue…
• The system designer must specify type of
traffic (how many people wish to talk, how
often, and for how long), lost-call criteria or
GoS, forecast growth, and QoS.
• The trade-off of all these factors with
“economy” is probably the most vital part
of initial planning and downstream system
design.

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 74

 Continue…
• We must point out that switching enhances
the transmission facilities (carrier, radio, and
cable systems).
• From an economic point of view, it would be
desirable to make transmission facilities
adaptive to traffic load.
• It is switching that makes transmission
facilities adaptive by improving traffic
concentration through discrete utilization of
transmission trunks from different sources.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 75
 Continue…
• The transmission system must not
excessively degrade the signal to be
transported.
• The transmission system must meet a
reliability constraint and availability and
must have an alternative route scheme in
case of facility loss, whether switching
node or trunk route. How?

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 76

 2 The Design Problem
• In long-distance network design, the first
step is Toll (transit) exchange placement.
• Then, a country must be divided into toll
areas.
• The size of a toll area is impacted by a
number of interacting disciplines, such as
subscriber density at the end of a forecast
period (say 10 years for the argument) for
the candidate area; this will impact
numbering and tariff areas.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 77
Interconnection of
switching exchanges in
North America

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 78

 Continue…
• One report recommends, as a goal, that a
numbering area be no greater than 70,000
km2 nor have less than 100,000
subscribers at the end of a numbering-
plan validity period.
• One rough rule of thumb is that a tariff
area/toll area have no more than a 50-km
diameter. In rural regions, toll areas/tariff
areas may be considerably larger.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 79
 Continue…
• Subscribers should be able to dial a
shorter number when calling other
subscribers inside their own
numbering area (local area).
• But when dialing toll area, a trunk
prefix (zero digit) must be dialed
with the area code (051).
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 80
 Continue…
• Thus when a switch receives the initial
digit as zero, it is prepared to receive
the longer toll number for inter-area
dialing, whereas if it receives any other
digit, it is prepared for receipt of a
subscriber number for intra-area dialing.
• This will reduce the number of digits to
be analyzed by a switch for proper
routing and charging.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 81
 Continue…
• In the past, for the long-distance
network we could nearly always
assume a hierarchical structure with
three, four, or even five levels in the
hierarchy.
• Our thinking has changed. We are
moving away from the hierarchical
concept (albeit slowly) to one using
more direct routes.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 82
 3 Link Limitation
• Link: is the connectivity from one
exchange to an adjacent exchange.
• End-to-End: is the connectivity between
the subscriber and a local exchange.
• ITU-T Organization recommends that
there be no more than 12 links in tandem
on any international connection, except
for very large countries where 14 links
may be acceptable.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 83
 Continue…
• On an international connection, the 12
links in tandem are broken down into
three groups, each 4 links in tandem as
follows:
1. National connection of country
originating call.
2. International portion.
3. National connection of country
terminating the call.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 84
 Continue…

An international connection to illustrate the nomenclature adopted and the

maximum number of links in tandem for an international connection.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 85
 Continue…
• ITU-T places this link limitation in the
transmission plan to ensure some minimum
transmission quality and to provide efficient
operation of signaling, end-to-end.
• For national network planning we assume that
there are no more than four links in tandem.
• we also assume that there are no more than
four links in tandem on the international
connectivity.

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 86

 4 International Network
• International routing plan is known as free
routing structure. Some of its highlights by
ITU-T are:
1. It is not hierarchical.
2. Direct traffic should be routed over final
(fully provided) or High Usage (HU)
circuit groups.
3. No more than four international circuits in
tandem should be involved between
originating and terminating ISCs.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 87
 Continue…
4. When a group consists of both terrestrial
(earth) and satellite circuits, the choice of
routing should be governed by:
• Total delay of connectivity (<400 ms) including
both processing delay and propagation
delay.
• The number of satellite circuits in the overall
connection. No more than one GEO-link
(consists of one up and one down link).
• Select the circuit that provides the overall
better transmission quality.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 88
 6 Network Design
• At the top of a country’s hierarchy there
is one or more international
switching centers.
• The next level down, as a minimum,
would be the long-distance (Toll)
network.
• Thence down to a local network
consisting of local serving exchanges
and tandem exchanges.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 89
 Continue…
• Hence, a country is divided into toll areas.
• And a Toll Area is made up of a grouping
of Local Areas probably coinciding with a
numbering (plan) area.
• The link limit is immediately enforced
starting at the international switching
center (ISC) and heading downwards to
the local serving exchange.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 90
 Continue…
• And we know that, no more than
four links in tandem are permitted.
• Using a High-Usage (HU) route,
perhaps only two links would be
required to reach the ISC — that
is, from Local Serving Exchange
to Toll Exchange, thence directly
to the ISC.

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 91

 Continue…
• HU route: is defined as any route that is not a
final route which could be established between
any pair of exchanges in the network if traffic
intensities and distances involved proved this
strategy economical.
• Direct route: is a special type of HU route
connecting exchanges of the lowest rank in the
hierarchy.
• Final route: is a route from which no traffic can
overflow to an alternative route.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 92
 Continue…
• It is a route that connects an exchange
immediately above or below it in the
network hierarchy.
• It makes up the backbone of the
network.
• When HU routes are established, traffic
between the exchanges involved will first
be offered to the HU route, and overflow
would take place through the final route.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 93
A typical hierarchical network, Dashed An example of a hierarchical
lines show high-usage trunks network with alternative routing
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 94
 Hierarchical structures of AT & T and ITU-T
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 95
 7 Traffic Routing In International
Network
• The objective of routing is to establish
a successful connection between any
two exchanges in the network.
• The function of traffic routing is the
selection of a particular circuit group, for
a given call attempt or traffic stream, at
an exchange in the network.

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 96

 7.2 Network Topology
• As we know that a network
comprises a number of nodes
interconnected by circuit
groups directly or indirectly.
• Theses circuits could be one-
way or both-way circuits.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 97
 Continue…

A simplified network with circuit groups connecting pairs of nodes with

one-way and both-way (two-way) working.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 98
 Continue…
• Direct route consists of one or
more circuit groups connecting
adjacent nodes.
• Indirect route is a series of
circuit groups connecting two
nodes providing an end-to-end
connection via other nodes.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 99
 7.2.1 Network Architecture
• As was mentioned earlier, there is
no hierarchy for ISCs.
• Hence, telecommunication
companies and administrations
are free to determine the most
suitable utilization of their
individual ISCs.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 100
 7.3 Routing Scheme
• A routing scheme: defines how a set of
routes is made available for calls between a
pair of nodes.
• There are two routing schemes:
1. Fixed routing schemes
• The routing pattern is always the same.
2. Dynamic routing schemes
• The set of routes in the routing pattern
varies.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 101
 Continue…
• Dynamic routing schemes are
classified to
1. Time-Dependent Routing:
• Routing patterns are altered at fixed
times during the day (or week) to
allow changing traffic demands to be
provided for.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 102
 Continue…

Example of time-dependent routing

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 103

 Continue…
2. State-Dependent Routing:
• Routing patterns vary automatically according
to the state of the network. This is adaptive
routing.
• A centralized routing processor is employed
to select optimum routing patterns on the
basis of actual occupancy levels of the circuit
groups and exchanges in the network which
are monitored on a periodic basis (e.g., 10 s).

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 104

 Continue…

Example of state-dependent routing

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 105

 Continue…

3. Event-Dependent Routing:
• Routing scheme routes traffic
locally away from congested
links by retaining routing
choices where calls are
successful.
11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 106
 Continue…

An example of automatic rerouting

11/26/24 Kobid Karkee 107