Chapter 8

Digital Transmission Systems

Part 2
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 1
 10 SDH and SONET
• SDH is an acronym for Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy. It is an European development.
• SDH: is a hierarchical set of digital transport
structures (Overhead), standardized for the
transport of suitably adapted Payloads over
physical transmission networks.
• SONET is an acronym for Synchronous
Optical Network . It is a North American
development.
• The two (SDH and SONET) are very similar.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 2
 Continue…

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 3

 Continue…
• Either one can accommodate the standard E1
family (i.e., 2.048 Mbps, etc.) and DS1 family
(i.e., 1.544 Mbps, etc.) of line rates.
• SDH/SONET is replacing PDH systems in the
Transport Network.
• By Transport Network we mean the flexible
high-capacity transmission network that is
used to carry all types of information.
• By Flexible we mean that telecommunications
operators are able to easily modify the
structure of the transport network from the
centralized management system.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 4

 10.1 Advantages of SDH/SONET
• SDH/SONET is based on the principal
of direct synchronous multiplexing,
where separate, slower signals can be
multiplexed directly onto higher speed
SDH/SONET signals without
intermediate stages of multiplexing.
• SDH/SONET is more flexible and
reliable than PDH and provides
advanced network management and
maintenance features.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 5
 Continue…
• Can be used in Long-Haul Networks,
Local Networks and Loop Carriers, and
it can also be used to carry CATV video
traffic, ATM, and ISDN.
• In SDH/SONET format, only those
channels that are required at a particular
point are demultiplexed, thereby
eliminating the need for back-to-back
multiplexing. In other words, SDH/SONET
makes individual channels “visible” and
they can easily be added and dropped.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 6
 Continue…
• The data rates for optical transmission are
standardized (i.e., vendor independent).
• Different systems are included in
standards, for example, Terminal,
Add/Drop, and Cross-Connection
Systems.
• These systems make SDH/SONET
networks more flexible than PDH
systems, which include only terminal
multiplexer functionality.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 7
 10.2 Why SDH/SONET
• Originally, all communications in the
telephone network was analog.
• Analog lines or analog microwave links
were used to connect to switching offices.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 8

 Continue…
• In about 1962, the network providers
began using digital communications
between switching centers.
• This was PDH system (DS-Carrier in US
and E-Carrier in Europe).

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 9

 Continue…
• As communications needs grew, many DS-
Carrier or E-Carrier lines were needed between
switching centers.
• In the late 1970’s optical communications began
to be used to interconnect switching offices.
E1 or DS1 E1 or DS1

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 10

 Continue…
• Prior to standardization, every
manufacturer of optical communications
used their own framing.
• The ANSI and the ITU began work in 1986
to define standards for optical
communications.
• Both bodies finalized their first set of
standards in 1988.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 11
 Continue…
• They defined the following:
1. Optical and Cupper interfaces
(wavelength, frequency, power, etc.).
2. Rates, frame formats, and network
elements (Layers).
3. Operations, Administration, and
Maintenance (OAM) functions including
monitoring for valid signal, defect
reporting, and alarms due to abundant
overhead bits.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 12
 10.3 Basic SDH/SONET
Transmission Rates (Hierarchy)
• SONET and SDH converge at SDH’s 155 Mbps
base level, defined as STM-1 (Synchronous
Transport Module-1).
• The base level for SONET is STS-1
(Synchronous Transport Signal-1) or OC-1
(Optical Carrier-1) and is equivalent to 51.84
Mbps.
• Thus, SDH’s STM-1 is equivalent to SONET’s
STS-3 (3 x 51.84 Mbps = 155.52 Mbps).
• Higher SDH rates of STM-4 (622 Mbps), STM-
16 (2.4 Gbps), and STM-64 (10 Gbps) have
also been defined.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 13
 SDH Bit Rate SDH Capacity
STM-0 51.84 Mbps 21 E1
STM-1 155.52 Mbps 63 E1 or 1 E4
STM-4 622.08 Mbps 252 E1 or 4 E4
STM-16 2488.32 Mbps 1008 E1 or 16 E4
STM-64 9953.28 Mbps 4032 E1 or 64 E4
STM-256 39812.12 Mbit/s 16128 E1 or 256 E4

SONET Bit Rate SONET Capacity

STS-1, OC-1 51.84 Mbps 28 DS1 or 1 DS3
STS-3, OC-3 155.52 Mbps 84 DS1 or 3 DS3
STS-12, OC-12 622.08 Mbps 336 DS1 or 12 DS3
STS-48, OC-48 2488.32 Mbps 1344 DS1 or 48 DS3
STS-192, OC-192 9953.28 Mbps 5376 DS1 or 192 DS3
STS-768, OC-768 39812.12 Mbps 21504 DS1s or 768 DS3

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 14

 Continue…

Data Rates of SONET and Corresponding SDH Data Streams

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 15

 Continue…
• Multiplexing is accomplished by combining or
interleaving multiple lower-order signals (1.5 Mbps
DS1 carrier, 2 Mbps E1 carrier, etc.) into higher-
speed circuits (51 Mbps STS-1, 155 Mbps STM-
1, etc.).
• By changing the SONET standard from Bit-
Interleaving to Byte-Interleaving, it became
possible for SDH to accommodate both
transmission hierarchies.
• This modification allows an STM-1 signal to carry
multiple 1.5 Mbps or 2 Mbps signals and multiple
STM signals to be aggregated to carry higher
orders of SONET or SDH tributaries.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 16
 11 SDH STM Signal
• SDH multiplexing combines low-speed
digital signals such as 2, 34, and 140
Mbps signals with required Overhead to
form a frame called STM-1.
• SDH is a Byte-Interleaving multiplexing
system.
• An STM is the information structure used
to support Section Layer Connections in
the SDH.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 17
 Continue…
• It consists of information Payload and
Overhead (OH) information fields
organized in a block frame structure which
repeats every 125 μS.
• The information is suitably conditioned for
serial transmission on the selected media
at a rate which is synchronized to the
network.
• STM-1 is the base level of SDH.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 18
 Continue…
• The STM-1 frame, is created by 9 segments
of 270 bytes each (1-byte = 8-bits)
• The first 9 bytes of each segment carry
Overhead (OH) information.
• The remaining 261 bytes carry Payload.
• When visualized as a block, the STM-1 frame
appears as 9 rows by 270 columns of bytes.
• The STM-1 frame is transmitted row-by-row.
• Row #1 first, with the most significant bit
(MSB) of each byte transmitted first, then the
Row #2 and so on, up to Row #9.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 19
 Continue…
• The STM-1 frame lasts for 125 μS, in
other words, the 9 row segments will be
transmitted in a total time equal to 125
μS.
• This will permit SDH to easily integrate
existing digital services into its hierarchy.
• Therefore, there are 8000 frames per
second.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 20
 Segment no. 7
270 Bytes in (125/9) μS

The STM-1 frame

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 21

 STM-1 frame visualized as a block, and the direction of transmission
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 22
 Continue…

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 23

 STM-1 frame visualized as a block
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 24
 Continue…
• Hence, the STM-1 frame rate Rf is
Rf = 8000 frames per second
• The bit rate Rb of STM-1 frame is calculated
as follow:
Rb = Rf x Cf , where
Rf is the frame rate (frames/second).
Cf is the frame capacity (bits/frame).
• The frame capacity of a signal is the number
of bits contained within a single frame.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 25
 Continue…
• We know that the frame rate is
Rf = 8000 frames/second.
• Cf is calculated as follow
Cf = 270 bytes/row x 9 rows/frame x 8
bits/byte
= 19,440 bits/frame
• Then, the bit rate Rb of the STM-1 signal is
calculated as follows:
Rb = 8000 frames/second x 19,440 bits/frame
= 155.52 Mbps
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 26
 Continue…
• The multiplexing of multiple data
stream, plays an important role in SDH.
• Byte Interleaving scheme is used to
multiplex multiple data stream.
• The higher transmission levels
(Multiplex) such as STM-4 and STM-16
of the SDH Hierarchy are generated
from integer multiples of STM-1 signal.
• In general, STM-N signal is generated
by Byte Interleaving N STM-1 signal.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 27
 Continue…

Multiplexing of STM-1 to generate STM-N

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 28

 Continue…

STM-N signal frame structure

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 29
 Continue…
• Example:
• An STM-4 signal will be created by Byte
Interleaving four STM-1 signals.
• The basic frame rate remains 8,000
frames per second, but the capacity is
quadrupled, resulting in a bit rate of
4 x 155.52 Mbps or 622.08 Mbps.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 30

 Continue…

Multiplexing of STM-1 to generate STM-4

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 31

11.1 SDH STM-1 Frame Structure
• As we know that, the SDH frame STM-1
consists of two parts:
1. The First Nine Columns comprise the
Overhead (OH), occurs at a rate
9 x 9 x 8 x 8000 = 5.184 Mbps.
2. While the remainder is called the
Payload, which is also called Virtual
Container (VC), occurs at a rate
9 x 261 x 8 x 8000 = 150.336
Mbps.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 32
 Continue…
• The OH is further divided into:
1. Section Overhead (SOH).
2. Administrative Unit Pointer (AU-PTR).
• The Payload or Virtual Container (VC) is
further divided into:
1. Path Overhead (POH): One column.
2. Container (C): 260 columns and data rate
given by 9 x 260 x
8 x 8000 = 149.76 Mbps.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 33
 125 μS

1 9 10 11 270
1
SOH
3
4 AU-PTR

POH
9 rows
Container

SOH

9 columns 261 columns

Overhead (OH) Virtual Container (VC)

SDH frame STM-1 structure

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 34
 Continue…
• The SOH dedicates
1. Three Rows for the Regenerator Section
Overhead (RSOH) and
2. Six Rows for the Multiplexer Section
Overhead (MSOH).
• Rate of RSOH and MSOH is given by
RSOH = 3 x 9 x 8 x 8000 = 1.728 Mbps.
MSOH = 6 x 9 x 8 x 8000 = 3.456 Mbps.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 35
 125 μS

1 9 10 11 270
1
RSOH
3
4 AU-PTR

POH
9 rows
Container

MSOH

9 columns 271 columns

Overhead (OH) Virtual Container (VC)

SDH frame STM-1 structure

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 36
 11.2 The Truck Analogy

• SDH frame functions as a transport truck

which has a tractor and a container type
trailer.
• It packs the signals of different hierarchies
into packages of different sizes like packing
cargoes and then loads them into the truck.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 37
 Continue…

SDH frame

• The contents carrier in the container are real

goods.
• These are analogous to customer traffic,
being carried in the Payload area of SDH
frame.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 38
 11.3 The Function of OHs
• The OH within the SDH signal supports
network management at both the Path
and Section levels.
• To realize layered monitoring, the OH is
classified into SOH and POH.
• SOH and which includes RSOH and
MSOH, is responsible for the section
layer OAM.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 39
 Continue…
• SOH functions are:
1. Frame alignment pattern.
2. Parity check.
3. STM-1 identification.
4. Alarm information.
5. Automatic protection switching.
6. Data communication channel.
7. Voice communication channel.
8. User channel.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 40
 Continue…
• The POH is responsible for the Path layer
OAM functions.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 41

 11.4 Function of The Pointer
• SDH network is intended to be synchronous
network.
• However, there will always be slight timing
differences because different clocks are being
used or the same clock is being distributed
over long distances.
• SDH Pointers allow this limited asynchronous
operation within the synchronous network.
• It points the location of the VC in the STM
frame.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 42

 12 SDH Signal Hierarchy

Typical SDH Communication Network

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 43

 Continue…
• There are three Sections in the SDH
signal hierarchy:
1. Path.
2. Multiplex Section.
3. Regenerator Section.
• The Overheads (OHs) are always
generated at the beginning of a section
and only evaluated at the end of a
section.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 44
 Continue…

The SDH Layer Model

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 45
 12.1 SDH Network Elements
• The SDH signal is layered to divide responsibility
for transporting the Payload through the network.
• Each SDH Network Element (NE) is responsible
for
1. Interpreting and generating its overhead layer,
2. Communicating control and status information to
the same layer in other equipment,
3. Terminating its overhead layer.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 46

 Continue…
• As the Payload travels through the SDH
network, each layer is terminated by one
of a general class of NEs named
1. Regenerator Section Terminating
Equipment (RSTE),
2. Multiplexer Section Terminating
Equipment (MSTE),
3. Path Terminating Equipment (PTE).
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 47
 12.1.1 Path Terminating
Equipment (PTE)
• PTE is an entry-level path-terminating
terminal multiplexer, acts as a concentrator of
E1s as well as other tributary signals.

Terminal multiplexer example

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 48
 Continue…
• PTE is a terminating multiplexer.
• It is responsible for adding first order POH,
MSOH, and RSOH to the data Container (C).
• Its simplest deployment would involve two
terminal multiplexers linked by fiber with or
without a regenerator in the link.
• This implementation represents the simplest
SDH link (Regenerator Section, Multiplex
Section, and Path, all in one link).
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 49
 11.1.2 Regenerator
• A regenerator is needed when, due to the
long distance between multiplexers, the
signal level in the fiber becomes too low.

Regenerator.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 50

 Continue…
• The regenerator recovers timing from
the received signal and replaces the
existing Regenerator Section overhead
(RSOH) bytes of the received STM
signal before retransmitting the signal;
the Multiplex Section Overhead
(MSOH), Path Overhead (POH), and
Container (C) are not altered.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 51
 11.1.3 ADM
• It is responsible for adding higher order
RSOH, and MSOH, to the received STM
signal. It is also responsible for evaluating
RSOH, MSOH, and POH.
• A single-stage Multiplexer/Demultiplexer
can multiplex various inputs into an STM-N
signal.
• At an Add/Drop site, only those signals that
need to be accessed are dropped or inserted.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 52

 Continue…
• The remaining traffic continues through
the network element without requiring
special pass through units or other signal
processing.
• In rural applications, an Add/Drop
Multiplexer (ADM) can be deployed at a
terminal site or any intermediate location
for consolidating traffic from widely
separated locations.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 53
 Continue…

STM-N

Add/Drop multiplexer example.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 54

 Continue…

A Synchronous Add–Drop Multiplexer (ADM)

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 55

 11.1.4 DXC
• An SDH Digital Cross-Connect (DXC)
accepts various E-carrier and STM rates,
accesses the STM-1 signals, and switches at
this level.
• It is responsible for adding RGSO, and MSOH
without altering the POH.
• One major difference between a DXC and an
ADM is that a DXC may be used to
interconnect a much larger number of STM-1s.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 56

 Continue…

Digital Cross-Connect (DXC)

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 57

 Continue…
• It is ideally used at an SDH Hub Network.
• The DXC can be used for grooming
(consolidating or segregating) of STM-1s
or for broadband traffic management.
• For example, it may be used to segregate
high-bandwidth from low-bandwidth traffic
and send them separately to the high-
bandwidth (for example video) switch and
a low-bandwidth (voice) switch.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 58
 13 SDH Network
• SDH Core Transmission Stations (SDH-
CTSs) are usually located at each of the
trunk and international exchanges and many
of the larger local exchanges.
• Figure in the next slide illustrates the concept
with an example of five CTSs (A to E), which
are supporting the core transmission
between a set of trunk telephone switching
units, data nodes and private circuit nodes.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 59

 Core Transmission Network Configuration
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 60
 Continue…
• An SDH-CTS uses a combination of ADMs
and DXC equipment to provide the necessary
transmission flexibility.
• The configuration of the ADM and the DXC are
managed through a computer-based controller,
which may be co-sited or remotely located.
• The SDH configuration controller allows the
network operator to manage the configuration
of the CTS flexibility points, through planning
and assignment processes, as well as
reconfigurations in real time to compensate for
transmission link breakdowns.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 61

 Continue…
• An SDH-CTS comprises a DXC on which the
high speed transmission links terminate.
• For the example of a 2 Mbps block extraction
from the incoming 155 Mbps link the DXC needs
to be able to identify and manipulate the
appropriate 2 Mbps tributary from the incoming
SDH link and pass it to the outgoing link.
• The DXC is divided into a higher-order DXC
switch-block handling the SDH transmission
rates and a lower-order DXC switch-block
handling the 2 Mbps and other PDH rates.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 62
 Continue…

SDH Core Transmission Network Station – DXCs

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 63
 Continue…
• At smaller transmission nodes ADMs only are
used to extract digital transmission blocks (at the
PDH rates of 2, 8 and 34 Mbps) for the co-sited
telephone switching unit, private circuit, and data
units within the exchange building associated
with the CTS.
• In order to maximize their (DXCs and ADMs)
management capability, SDH networks are
usually structured in a set of hierarchical levels.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 64

 SDH Core Transmission Network Station – ADMs
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 65
 SDH Transmission Network Structure
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 66
 Continue…
• Figure in S#54 illustrates a typical SDH
network structure using DXCs and ADMs.
• At the top level (Tier 1) of the national network
is a mesh of high-capacity SDH transmission
links between flexibility nodes (CTS) of DXCs.
• This forms the inner portion, or backbone of
the Core Transmission Network and links the
major trunk exchanges, as well as private
circuit and data nodes.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 67

 Continue…
• Hanging off this level at Tier 2 is a set of SDH
rings linking ADMs within a region of the
country, serving smaller trunk exchanges, local
exchanges and other nodes.
• Above the Tier 1 of the national network is the
international portion of the Core Transmission
Network, the Tier 0, which links to the network’s
transmission gateways to the transmission
networks of other countries – via submarine
cable landing stations, microwave radio stations
or satellite Earth stations.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 68
 Continue…

A typical suite consisting of several racks of SDH transmission equipment.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 69
 Continue…
• The yellow leads are optical patch cords that
connect from Optical Distribution Frames
(ODFs), where Backhaul Network based Optical
Fiber Cables are terminated (see next slide).
• The white cables running across the upper parts
of these racks feed to a Digital Distribution
Frame (DDF) that then connects to Main
Telephony switches, Internet and
Routers/Switches, Television and Radio
Program distribution networks.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 70
Optical
Distribution
Frames (ODFs)

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 71

 13.1 SDH Network
Configurations
• There are four major
configurations:
1. Point-to-Point.
2. Point-to-Multipoint.
3. Hub Architecture .
4. Ring Architecture .
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 72
 13.1.1 Point-to-Point
• Is the simplest network configuration.
• It involves two terminal multiplexers linked
by fiber with or without a regenerator in the
link.
• In this configuration, the SDH path and
the Service path (for example, E1 or E4
links end-to-end) are identical.
• This synchronous island can exist within
an asynchronous network world.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 73
 Continue…

STM-1 STM-1
E1 E1
E3 E3

Point-to-Point Network Configuration

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 74

 13.1.2 Point-to-Multipoint
• Also called Linear Add/Drop architecture.
• It includes adding and dropping circuits along
the way (link) to facilitate adding and dropping
tributary channels at intermediate points in the
network.
• The SDH ADM is a unique network element
specifically designed for this task. It avoids the
current cumbersome network architecture of
demultiplexing, cross-connecting, adding and
dropping channels, and then remultiplexing.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 75

 Continue…

Point-to-Multipoint Network Configuration

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 76

 13.1.3 Hub Architecture
• It accommodates unexpected
growth and change more easily
than simple point-to-point
networks.
• It concentrates traffic at a central
site using two or more ADMs, and
a DXC switch, and allows easy re-
provisioning of the circuits.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 77
 Continue…
• There are two possible implementations
of this type of network function:
1.Cross-connection at higher-order path
levels, for example, using three E3 and
E4 tributary in the switching matrix.
2.Cross-connection at lower-order path
levels, for example, using 63 E1
tributary in the switching matrix.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 78
 Continue…

Hub Network Architecture

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 79
 13.1.4 Ring Architecture
• The SDH building block for a ring
architecture is the ADM.
• Multiple ADMs can be put into a ring
configuration for either Bidirectional or
Unidirectional traffic.
• The main advantage of the ring topology is
its survivability; if a fiber cable is cut, for
example, the multiplexers have the local
intelligence to send the services affected
via an alternate path through the ring
without a lengthy interruption.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 80
 Continue…
• The demand for survivable
services, diverse routing of fiber
facilities, flexibility to rearrange
services to alternate serving nodes,
as well as automatic restoration
within seconds, have made rings a
popular SDH topology.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 81
 Continue…

Ring Architecture
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 82
 13.2 Hybrid Network
• The mixture of different applications is
typical of the data transported by
SDH.
• Synchronous networks must be
able to transmit Plesiochronous
signals and at the same time be
capable of handling future services
such as ATM.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 83
 Schematic Diagram of Hybrid Communication Network
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 84
 14 Types of SDH Multiplexing
• SDH multiplexing combines low-speed
digital signals such as 2, 34, and 140
Mbps signals with required Overhead
to form a frame called STM-1.
• It also multiplexes ATM and ISDN
signals into SDH frame.
• SDH is a Byte-Interleaving
multiplexing system.
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 85
 Continue…
• SDH multiplexing
includes two types:
1. Multiplexing lower-
order SDH signals
into higher-order
signals.
2. Multiplexing low-rate
tributary signals into
The goods of different size is
SDH signal. analogous to different data rates such
as 140 Mbps, 34 Mbps, and 2 Mbps.

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 86

 14.1 Multiplexing 140 Mbps
Signal To STM-1 SDH Frame
• First, the 140 Mbps PDH signal (E4) is
adapted via bit rate justification into
Container level 4 (C-4).
• The C-4 has 9 x 260 = 2340 bytes.
• The frame rate of C-4 is 8000 frames/Sec,
every 125 μS.
• The rate of E4 signal after adaptation is
9 x 260 x 8 x 8000 = 149.760 Mbps
07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 87
 Continue…
• A column of POH is added in front of every
C-4 block in order to implement real-time
monitoring over the 140 Mbps path
signals.
• The resulting block is called Virtual
Container level 4 (VC-4) with a a rate of
9 x 261 x 8 x 8000 = 150.336 Mbps

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 88

 1 260

POH
9 149.760 Mbps 9 C-4 139.264 Mbps

POH 261

150.336 Mbps 9 C-4 149.760 Mbps

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 89

 261

150.336 Mbps 9 VC-4 149.760 Mbps

261 261

=
POH
9 VC-4 9 C-4

07/03/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 90