Machine Design I

Design
The word design is from the Latin word designare meaning “to designate, or mark out.” Webster’s dictionary
gives several definitions of the word design, the most applicable of which is “to outline, plot, or plan as action
or work . . . to conceive, invent, contrive.” We are more concerned here with engineering design than with
artistic design.
Engineering design can be defined as “The process of applying the various techniques and scientific principles
for the purpose of defining a device, a process, or a system in sufficient detail to permit its realization.”
Phases and Interactions of the Design
Process

A Design Process
1. Identification of need
2. Background research
3. Goal statement
4. Task specifications
5. Synthesis
6. Analysis
7. Selection
8. Detailed design
9. Prototyping and testing
10. Production
Design Considerations
Sometimes the strength required of an element in a system is an important factor in the determination of the geometry
and the dimensions of the element. In such a situation we say that strength is an important design consideration. When
we use the expression design consideration, we are referring to some characteristic that influences the design of the
element or, perhaps, the entire system. Usually quite a number of such characteristics must be considered and
prioritized in a given design situation. Many of the important ones are as follows (not necessarily in order of
importance):
Standards and Codes
A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes intended to achieve uniformity, efficiency, and a
specified quality. One of the important purposes of a standard is to limit the multitude of variations that can arise from
the arbitrary creation of a part, material, or process.
A code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture, and construction of something. The purpose of a
code is to achieve a specified degree of safety, efficiency, and performance or quality.
(i) Standards for Materials, their Chemical Compositions, Mechanical Properties and Heat Treatment
For example, Indian standard IS 210 specifies seven grades of grey cast iron designated as FG 150, FG 200, FG 220, FG 260, FG 300,
FG 350 and FG 400. The number indicates ultimate tensile strength in N/mm 2.

(ii) Standards for Shapes and Dimensions of Commonly used Machine Elements
The machine elements include bolts, screws and nuts, rivets, belts and chains, ball and roller bearings, wire ropes, keys and splines, etc.
For example, IS 2494 (Part 1) specifies dimensions and shape of the cross section of endless V-belts for power transmission. The
dimensions of the trapezoidal cross-section of the belt, viz. width, height and included angle are specified in this standard.
(iii) Standards for Fits, Tolerances and Surface Finish of Component
For example, selection of the type of fit for different applications is illustrated in IS 2709 on ‘Guide for selection of fits’. The tolerances
or upper and lower limits for various sizes of holes and shafts are specified in IS 919 on ‘Recommendations for limits and fits for
engineering’.
(iv) Standards for Testing of Products
These standards, sometimes called ‘codes’, give procedures to test the products such as pressure vessel, boiler, crane and wire rope,
where safety of the operator is an important consideration. For example, IS 807 is a code of practice for design, manufacture, erection
and testing of cranes and hoists. The method of testing of pressure vessels is explained in IS 2825 on ‘Code for unfired pressure vessels’.
All of the organizations and societies listed below have established specifications for standards and safety or design
codes.
Bureau of Indian Standards(IS)
Aluminum Association (AA)
American Bearing Manufacturers Association (ABMA)
American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA)
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)
American Welding Society (AWS)
ASM International
British Standards Institution (BSI)
Industrial Fasteners Institute (IFI)
Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE)
Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE)
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)
International Federation of Robotics (IFR)
International Standards Organization (ISO)
National Association of Power Engineers (NAPE)
National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST)
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
Factor of Safety

A factor of safety or safety factor can be expressed in many ways. It is typically a ratio of two quantities that have
the same units, such as strength/stress, critical load/applied load, load to fail part/expected service overload,
maximum cycles/applied cycles, or maximum safe speed/operating speed. A safety factor is always unitless.

The factor of safety is defined as

fs = failure stress/allowable stress

Tensile Test:
The specimen used in a tension test is illustrated in Fig. The shape and dimensions of this specimen are
standardised. They should conform to IS 1608 : 19721. The cross-section of the specimen can be circular, square
or rectangular. The standard gauge length l0 is given by,

where A0 is the cross-sectional area of the specimen.

For circular cross-section,

Stress:

Strain:

Hooke’s Law:
Engineering and True Stress-Strain Curves for Ductile Materials: (a) Low-Carbon Steel (b) Annealed High-Carbon Steel

The yield strength of a material that does not exhibit a clear yield point has to be defined with an offset line,
drawn parallel to the elastic curve and offset some small percentage along the strain axis. An offset of 0.2%
strain is most often used. The yield strength is then taken at the intersection of the stress-strain curve and the
offset line as shown in Figure b.
The drop in apparent stress before the fracture point (from u to f in Figure a) is an artifact caused by the “necking-
down” or reduction in area of the ductile specimen. The reduction of cross-sectional area is nonuniform along the
length of the specimen as can be seen in Figure c.
Because the stress is calculated using the original area A0 in equation, it understates the true value of stress after
point u. It is difficult to accurately monitor the dynamic change in cross-sectional area during the test, so these
errors are accepted. The strengths of different materials can still be compared on this basis. When based on the
uncorrected area A0 this is called the engineering stress-strain curve, as shown in Figure a, b.
The stress at fracture is actually larger than shown. Figure 2-2 also shows the true stress-strain curve that would
result if the change in area were accounted for. The engineering stress-strain data from Figure a and b are
typically used in practice.
Ductility and Brittleness

The tendency for a material to deform significantly before fracturing is a measure of its
ductility. The absence of significant deformation before fracture is called brittleness.

Materials with more than 5% elongation at fracture are

considered ductile.
The Compression Test

Compression Test Specimens Before and After Failure (a) Ductile Steel (b) Brittle Cast Iron
The Torsion Test

Torsion Test Specimens Before and After Failure (a) Ductile Steel (b) Brittle Cast Iron

The stress-strain relation for pure torsion:

ULTIMATE SHEAR STRENGTH
The breaking strength in torsion is called the ultimate shear strength or modulus of rupture Sus and is calculated
from

In the absence of available data for the ultimate shear strength of a material, a
reasonable approximation can be obtained from tension test data:

Note that the shear yield strength has a different relationship to the tensile
yield strength:
Selection of Material
A mechanical designer must be effective in selecting the best available material for each application, considering all
important design criteria.
Analyzing Requirements of the Application

Example
the specification statement
for the crankshaft to be used
in a proposed new design for
a one-cylinder belt-driven air
compressor might be written
as:

The crankshaft should be

short, compact, relatively
rigid, fatigue resistant, wear
resistant at the bearing sites,
and capable of low-cost
production.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS:
Cast iron
Cast iron’s chemical composition differs from steel principally in its higher carbon content, being between 2 and 4.5%.
Grey Cast Iron is the most commonly used form of cast iron. Its graphite flakes give it its gray appearance and name.
Grey cast iron is formed when the carbon content in the alloy exceeds the amount that can be dissolved. Therefore,
some part of carbon precipitates and remains present as ‘graphite flakes’ distributed in a matrix of ferrite or pearlite
or their combination. When a component of grey cast iron is broken, the fractured surface has a grey appearance due
to the graphite flakes.
This alloy is easy to pour, easy to machine, and offers good acoustical damping. This makes it the popular choice for
machine frames, engine blocks, brake rotors and drums, etc. The graphite flakes also give it good lubricity and wear
resistance.
White cast iron is formed when most of the carbon content in the alloy forms iron carbide and there are no graphite
flakes.
Very hard and brittle material.
It is difficult to machine and has limited uses, such as in linings for cement mixers where its hardness is needed.

Malleable cast iron is first cast as white cast iron and then converted into malleable cast iron by heat treatment. In
malleable cast iron, the carbon is present in the form of irregularly shaped nodules of graphite called ‘temper’ carbon.
There are three basic types of malleable cast iron—blackheart, pearlitic and whiteheart—which are designated by
symbols
BM, PM and WM, respectively and followed by minimum tensile strength in N/mm 2. For example,

(i) BM 350 is blackheart malleable cast iron with a minimum tensile strength of 350 N/mm2;

(ii) PM 600 is pearlitic malleable cast iron with a minimum tensile strength of 600 N/mm 2;
and
(iii) WM 400 is whiteheart malleable cast iron with a minimum tensile strength of 400 N/mm2.
Blackheart malleable cast iron has excellent castability and machinability. It is used for brake shoes, pedal, levers, wheel
hub, axle housing and door hinges. Whiteheart malleable cast iron is particularly suitable for the manufacture of thin
castings which require ductility. It is used for pipe fittings, switch gear equipment, fittings for bicycles and motorcycle
frames. Pearlitic malleable iron castings can be hardened by heat treatment. It is used for general engineering components
with specific dimensional tolerances.
Nodular (ductile) Cast Iron has the highest tensile strength of the cast irons, ranging from about 480 to 930 MPa.
The name nodular comes from the fact that its graphite particles are spheroidal in shape (‘spherulites’ or ‘globules’ ).
Ductile cast iron has a higher modulus of elasticity (about 172 GPa) than gray cast iron and exhibits a linear stress-
strain curve. It is tougher, stronger, more ductile, and less porous than gray cast iron. It is the cast iron of choice for
fatigue-loaded parts such as crankshafts, pistons, and cams.

When a component of ductile cast iron is broken, the fractured surface has a bright appearance like steel. Ductile cast
iron is designated by the symbol SG (spheroidal graphite) followed by the minimum tensile strength in N/mm 2 and
minimum elongation in per cent. For example, SG 800/2 is spheroidal graphite cast iron with a minimum tensile
strength of 800 N/mm2 and a minimum elongation of 2%.
Plain Carbon Steel
steel is classed according to its carbon content into

• low carbon (< 0.2%)

soft and very ductile
unresponsive to heat treatment due to low carbon content

• medium carbon (0.2–0.5%)

stronger and tougher as compared with low carbon steels

• high carbon (> 0.5%).

very high strength combined with hardness
less ductility
difficult to weld

Plain carbon steels are available in the form of bar, tube, plate, sheet and wire.
The designation of plain carbon steel consists of the following three quantities:
(i) a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon;
(ii) a letter C; and
(iii) a figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese.
As an example, 55C4 indicates a plain carbon steel with 0.55% carbon and 0.4% manganese. A steel with 0.35–
0.45% carbon and 0.7–0.9% manganese is designated as 40C8.
Alloy Steel
Although a plain carbon steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with small amounts of manganese, silicon, sulfur, and
phosphorus, the term alloy steel is applied when one or more elements other than carbon are introduced in sufficient
quantities to modify its properties substantially.

The effects of major alloying elements are as follows:

Chromium
The addition of chromium results in the formation of various carbides of chromium that are very hard, yet the resulting
steel is more ductile than a steel of the same hardness produced by a simple increase in carbon content.
Chromium steels containing more than 4 per cent chromium have excellent corrosion resistance.
Nickel
The addition of nickel to steel increases the strength without decreasing the ductility. The main effect of nickel is
to increase toughness by limiting grain growth during the heat treatment process.
Chromium is frequently used in combination with nickel to obtain the toughness and ductility provided by the nickel and
the wear resistance and hardness contributed by the chromium.
Manganese
Manganese is added to all steels as a deoxidizing and desulfurizing agent. It increases the time required for
transformation so that oil quenching becomes practicable. It increases hardness and strength. It also
increases the depth of hardening.
Silicon
Silicon is added to all steels as a deoxidizing agent. It increases strength and hardness without lowering the
ductility. Silicon is purposely added in spring steel to increase its toughness.
Molybdenum
While molybdenum is used alone in a few steels, it finds its greatest use when combined with other alloying
elements, such as nickel, chromium, or both. Molybdenum forms carbides and also dissolves in ferrite to some
extent, so that it adds both hardness and toughness.
Tungsten
Tungsten is widely used in tool steels because the tool will maintain its hardness even at red heat. Tungsten
produces a fine, dense structure and adds both toughness and hardness. Its effect is similar to that of
molybdenum, except that it must be added in greater quantities.
 The term ‘alloy’ steel is used for low and medium alloy steels containing total alloying elements not exceeding 10%.
The designation of alloy steels consists of the following quantities:
(i) a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon; and
(ii) chemical symbols for alloying elements each followed by the figure for its average percentage content multiplied
by a factor. The multiplying factor depends upon the alloying element. The values of this factor are as follows:

Elements Multiplying factor

In alloy steels, the symbol ‘Mn’ for manganese is included
Cr, Co, Ni, Mn, 4
only if the content of manganese is equal to or greater than
Si and W
1%.
The chemical symbols and their figures are arranged in
Al, Be, V, Pb, Cu, 10
descending order of their percentage content.
Nb, Ti, Ta, Zr and
Mo
As an example, 25Cr4Mo2 is an alloy steel having average
0.25% of carbon, 1% chromium and 0.2% molybdenum.
P, S, N 100
Similarly, 40Ni8Cr8V2 is an alloy steel containing average
0.4% of carbon, 2% nickel, 2% chromium and 0.2%
vanadium.
consider a steel with the following chemical composition:
carbon = 0.12–0.20%
silicon = 0.15–0.35%
manganese = 0.60–1.00%
nickel = 0.60–1.00%
chromium = 0.40–0.80%
The average percentage of carbon is 0.16% and multiplying this value by 100, the first figure in the designation of
steel is 16. The average percentage of silicon and manganese is very small and, as such, the symbols Si and Mn are
deleted. Average percentages of nickel and chromium are 0.8 and 0.6, respectively, and the multiplying factor for
both elements is 4. Therefore,
nickel: 0.8 x 4 = 3.2 rounded to 3 or Ni3
chromium: 0.6 x 4 = 2.4 rounded to 2 or Cr2.
The complete designation of steel is 16Ni3Cr2.

The term ‘high alloy steels’ is used for alloy steels containing more than 10% of alloying elements.
As an example, X15Cr25Ni12 is a high alloy steel with 0.15% carbon, 25% chromium and 12% nickel.
The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) has classified grey cast iron by means of a number. This
class number gives minimum tensile strength in kpsi.
For example, ASTM Class No. 20 has minimum ultimate tensile strength of 20000 psi. Similarly, a cast iron with
minimum ultimate tensile strength of 50000 psi is designated as ASTM Class No. 50. Commonly used ASTM classes
of cast iron are 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50 and 60.
Tool Steels are medium- to high-carbon alloy steels especially formulated to give very high hardness in combination
with wear resistance and sufficient toughness to resist the shock loads experienced in service as cutting tools, dies and
molds. There is a very large variety of tool steels available.

Stainless Steels are alloy steels containing at least 10% chromium and offer much improved corrosion resistance
over plain or alloy steels, though their name should not be taken too literally. Stainless steels will stain and corrode
(slowly) in severe environments such as seawater. Some stainless-steel alloys have improved resistance to high
temperature.
Aluminum
Aluminum is the most widely used nonferrous metal, being second only to steel in world consumption. Aluminum is
produced in both “pure” and alloyed forms. Aluminum is commercially available up to 99.8% pure. The most
common alloying elements are copper, silicon, magnesium, manganese, and zinc, in varying amounts up to about
5%. The principal advantages of aluminum are its low density, good strength-to-weight ratio (SWR), ductility,
excellent workability, castability, and weldability, corrosion resistance, high conductivity, and reasonable cost.

Aluminum Alloys

Wrought –Aluminum Alloys are available in a wide variety of stock shapes such as I-beams, angles, channels, bars,
strip, sheet, rounds, and tubes.

Cast-aluminum Alloys are differently formulated than the wrought alloys. Some of these are hardenable but their
strength and ductility are less than those of the wrought alloys. Alloys are available for sand casting, die casting, or
investment casting.
Cast aluminum alloys are specified by a ‘four digit’ system
while wrought alloys by a ‘five-digit’ system. The meaning of
these digits is as follows:
First digit: It identifies the major alloying element.
Second digit: It identifies the average percentage of the major
alloying element, halved and rounded off.
Third, fourth and fifth digits: They identify the minor alloying
elements in order of their decreasing percentage.

As an example, consider an aluminum alloy casting with 9.8% Cu, 1.0% Fe and 0.25% Mg.
First digit identification of copper : 2
Second digit (9.8/2 = 4.9 or 5) : 5
Third digit identification of iron : 8
Fourth digit identification of magnesium : 5
Complete designation = 2585
 Alloy Series Principal Alloying Element
1xxx 99.000% Minimum Aluminum
2xxx Copper
3xxx Manganese
4xxx Silicon
5xxx Magnesium
6xxx Magnesium and Silicon
7xxx Zinc
8xxx Other Elements

WROUGHT ALUMINUM ALLOY DESIGNATION SYSTEM

The second single digit (xXxx), if different from 0, indicates a modification of

the specific alloy, and the third and fourth digits (xxXX) are arbitrary numbers
given to identify a specific alloy in the series. Example: In alloy 5183, the
number 5 indicates that it is of the magnesium alloy series, the 1 indicates that
it is the 1st modification to the original alloy 5083, and the 83 identifies it in
the 5xxx series.
The only exception to this alloy numbering system is with the 1xxx series
aluminum alloys (pure aluminums) in which case, the last 2 digits provide the
minimum aluminum percentage above 99%, i.e., Alloy 1350 (99.50%
minimum aluminum).
Copper Alloys

Pure copper is soft, weak, and malleable and is used primarily for piping, flashing, electrical conductors (wire)
and motors.
Some of the popular copper alloys are brass, bronze, gunmetal and monel metal.
Bronze
Silicon bronze, containing 3 percent silicon and 1 percent manganese in addition to the copper, has mechanical
properties equal to those of mild steel, as well as good corrosion resistance. It can be hot- or cold-worked, machined,
or welded. It is useful wherever corrosion resistance combined with strength is required.

Phosphor bronze, made with up to 11 percent tin and containing small amounts of phosphorus, is especially resistant
to fatigue and corrosion. It has a high tensile strength and a high capacity to absorb energy, and it is also resistant to
wear. These properties make it very useful as a spring material.

Aluminum bronze is a heat-treatable alloy containing up to 12 percent aluminum. This alloy has strength and
corrosion-resistance properties that are better than those of brass, and in addition, its properties may be varied over a
wide range by cold working, heat treating, or changing the composition. When iron is added in amounts up to 4
percent, the alloy has a high endurance limit, a high shock resistance, and excellent wear resistance.

Beryllium bronze is another heat-treatable alloy, containing about 2 percent beryllium. This alloy is very corrosion
resistant and has high strength, hardness, and resistance to wear. Although it is expensive, it is used for springs and
other parts subjected to fatigue loading where corrosion resistance is required.
Brasses, in general, are alloys of copper and zinc in varying proportions and are used in many applications, from
artillery shells and bullet shells to lamps and jewelry.

Brass has good thermal conductivity. The strength and ductility of brass depend upon the zinc content. As the
amount of zinc increases, the strength of brass increases and ductility decreases. The best combination of strength
and ductility is obtained when the amount of zinc is 30 per cent. Brass can be used either in rolled condition or as
cast. Some of the commonly used varieties of brass are yellow brass, naval brass, cartridge brass. Typical
applications of brass in the field of mechanical engineering are tubes for condensers and heat exchangers,
automotive radiator cores, rivets, valve stems and bellow springs.
Figure shows such a chart that
plots Young’s modulus against
density, which
is called specific stiffness. By
drawing lines of constant slope
on such a chart, one can see
which materials possess similar
properties.
Figure shows a chart
of strength versus
density (called
specific strength) for a
number of materials.
In this chart, the
particular material
strength used varies
with the material
depending on its
character. For
example, ductile
metals and polymers
show their yield
strength, brittle
ceramics their
crushing compressive
strength, and
elastomers their tear
strength.
Design against Static Load:
Factor of Safety/ Safety Factor
Practically, uncertainties and variabilities always exist in design predictions. Loads are often variable and
inaccurately known, strengths are variable and sometimes inaccurately known for certain failure modes or certain
states of stress, calculation models embody assumptions that may introduce inaccuracies in determining dimensions,
and other uncertainties may result from variations in quality of manufacture, operating conditions, inspection, and
maintenance practices. These uncertainties and variabilities clearly complicate the design task.
Uncertainties in selecting shapes, sizes, and materials that will provide safe, reliable operation must be directly
addressed. To accomplish this failure prevention objective, a designer has a choice: (1) select a design safety factor
that will assure that minimum strength or capacity safely exceeds maximum stress or load for all foreseeable
conditions,

The factor of safety is defined as

Stresses due to Bending Moment:
Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress:

2q
Cotter Joint:

A cotter joint is used to connect two co-axial rods, which are subjected to either axial tensile force or axial compressive
force. It is also used to connect a rod on one side with some machine part like a crosshead or base plate on the other side.

Example of application: piston rod to the crosshead of a steam engine, the slide spindle to the fork of the valve
mechanism, the piston rod and the tail or pump rod etc.

Type of cotter joint:

a.) Socket and Spigot Cotter Joint
b.) Sleeve and Cotter Joint
c.) Gib and Cotter Joint
Socket and Spigot Cotter Joint:
P = tensile force acting on rods (N)
d = diameter of each rod (mm)
d1 = outside diameter of socket (mm)
d2 = diameter of spigot or inside diameter
of socket (mm)
d3 = diameter of spigot-collar (mm)
d4 = diameter of socket-collar (mm)
a = distance from end of slot to the end of
spigot on rod- (mm)
b = mean width of cotter (mm)
c = axial distance from slot to end of
socket collar (mm)
t = thickness of cotter (mm)
t1 = thickness of spigot-collar (mm)
l = length of cotter (mm)
Free body diagram of forces
Design of Socket and Spigot Cotter Joint on the basis of different failures:

1. Tensile failure of rod:

where st is the permissible tensile stress for the

rods.

P
2. Tensile failure of spigot:

The tensile stress in the spigot is given by,

The thickness of the cotter is usually determined by

the following empirical relationship,
t = 0.31d
P
3. Tensile failure of socket:

The tensile stress in the socket is given by,

P
P
4. Shear failure of cotter:
The shear stress in the cotter is given by,

P/2

P/2
5. Shear failure of spigot
end:

P
6. Shear failure of socket end:

P
7. Crushing failure of spigot end:

P
8. Crushing failure of socket end:

P
9. Bending failure of cotter:

The bending moment is maximum at the centre

and given by
Empirical relationships for cotter design:
Example: It is required to design a cotter joint to connect two steel rods of equal diameter.
Each rod is subjected to an axial tensile force of 50 kN. Design the joint and specify its main
dimensions.
Sleeve and Cotter Joint:
Gib and Cotter Joint:
A gib is a piece of mild steel having the same thickness and taper as cotter.
Knuckle Joint:

Knuckle joint is used to connect two rods whose axes either coincide or intersect and lie in one plane. The
knuckle joint is used to transmit axial tensile force. The construction of this joint permits limited angular
movement between rods, about the axis of the pin.
Typical applications of knuckle joints are as follows:
(i) Joints between the tie bars in roof trusses.
(ii) Joints between the links of a suspension bridge.
(iii) Joints in valve mechanism of a reciprocating engine.
(iv) Fulcrum for the levers.
(v) Joints between the links of a bicycle chain.
D = diameter of each rod (mm)
D1 = enlarged diameter of each rod (mm)
d = diameter of knuckle pin (mm)
d0 = outside diameter of eye or fork (mm)
a = thickness of each eye of fork (mm)
b = thickness of eye end of rod-B (mm)
d1 = diameter of pin head (mm)
x = distance of the centre of fork radius R from
the eye (mm)
1. Tensile Failure of rod:

where st is the permissible tensile stress for the

rods.
2. Shear Failure of pin:

Standard proportion:
3. Tensile Failure of Eye:
4. Shear Failure of Eye:

Standard proportion:
5. Crushing Failure of Pin in Eye:
6. Tensile Failure of Fork:
7. Shear Failure of Fork:

Standard proportion:
8. Crushing Failure of pin in Fork:
9. Bending Failure of pin:
Example: It is required to design a knuckle joint to connect two circular rods subjected to an axial tensile force of
50 kN. The rods are co-axial and a small amount of angular movement between their axes is permissible. Design the
joint and specify the dimensions of its components. Select suitable materials for the parts.
 Theories of Failure:

Normal stresses act perpendicular (i.e.,

normal) to the face of the cube and tend to
either pull it out (tensile normal stress) or
push it in (compressive normal stress).
Shear stresses act parallel to the faces of
the cubes, in pairs (couples) on opposite
faces, which tends to distort the cube into a
rhomboidal shape.

The 3-D stress tensor can be

expressed as the matrix:

The 2-D stress

tensor
There will always be planes on which the shear-
stress components are zero.The normal stresses
acting on these planes are called the principal
stresses.
The planes on which these principal stresses act
are called the principal planes.
The directions of the surface normal to the
principal planes are called the principal axes, and
the normal stresses acting in those directions are
the principal normal stresses.
General Three-Dimensional Stress

Since there are three faces, there are three

principal directions and three principal
stresses σ1, σ2, and σ3.
Induced shear stress from pure tensile loading.
Induced axial stress from pure shear loading
 Stress Concentration:

Intuitive concept of stress concentration. (a)

The elementary equations of strength of material are based Without stress concentration. (b) With stress
on a assumptions that there are no discontinuities in the cross- concentration.
section of the component. However, in practice,
discontinuities and abrupt changes in cross-section are
unavoidable due to certain features.
For example, shafts often are stepped to different diameters to
accommodate bearings, gears, pulleys, etc. A shaft may have
grooves for snap-rings or O-rings, or have keyways and holes
for the attachment of other parts. Bolts are threaded and have
heads bigger than their shank. Any one of these changes in
cross-sectional geometry will cause localized stress
concentrations.
Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high stresses due to the irregularities present in the
component and abrupt changes of the cross section.

A theoretical, or geometric, stress-concentration factor Kt is used to relate the actual maximum stress at the
discontinuity to the nominal stress. The factors are defined by the equations

The stress-concentration factor depends for its value only on the geometry of the part. That is, the particular
material used has no effect on the value of Kt. This is why it is called a theoretical stress-concentration factor.

The analysis of geometric shapes to determine stress-concentration factors is a difficult problem, and not many
solutions can be found. Most stress-concentration factors are found by using experimental techniques. Though
the finite-element method has been used, the fact that the elements are indeed finite prevents finding the true
maximum stress. Experimental approaches generally used include photoelasticity, grid methods, brittle-coating
methods, and electrical strain-gauge methods.
It is possible to find out the stress concentration factor for some simple geometric shapes using the Theory of
elasticity. A flat plate with an elliptical hole and subjected to tensile force, is shown in figure. It can be proved
using the Theory of elasticity that the theoretical stress concentration factor at the edge of hole is given by,
Stress Concentration Under Static Loading

Ductile Material
For ductile materials under static tensile loading, it is typical to ignore stress concentrations in small local areas because
the ductility permits yielding that redistributes the stress over a larger area and ultimate failure does not occur.
In ductile materials, the stress-concentration factor is not usually applied to predict the critical stress, because plastic
strain in the region of the stress is localized and has a strengthening effect.
Ductile material will yield locally at the stress-raiser while the lower-stressed material further from the geometric
discontinuity remains below the yield point. When the material yields locally, its stress-strain curve there becomes
nonlinear and of low slope, which prevents further significant increase in stress at that point. As the load is increased,
more material is yielded, bringing more of the cross section to that stress. Only when the entire cross section has been
brought to the yield point then the part continue up to fracture. Thus, it is common to ignore the effects of geometric
stress concentration in ductile materials under static loading.

Brittle Material

Brittle material will not yield locally, since they do not have a plastic range. Thus, stress concentrations do have an effect
on their behavior even under static loads. Once the stress at the stress-raiser exceeds the fracture strength, a crack begins
to form. This reduces the material available to resist the load and also increases the stress concentration in the narrow
crack. The part then goes quickly to failure. Stress concentration factors must always be applied for brittle materials
because locally high stresses typically lead to fracture.
Stress Concentration Under Dynamic Loading

Ductile materials under dynamic loading behave and fail as if they were brittle. So, regardless of the ductility or
brittleness of the material, the stress-concentration factor should be applied when dynamic loads (fatigue or impact) are
present. However, there are still material-related parameters to account for. While all materials are affected by stress
concentrations under dynamic loads, some materials are more sensitive than others. A parameter called notch sensitivity
q is defined for various materials and used to modify the geometric factors Kt for a given material under dynamic
loading.
Example: The 2-mm-thick bar shown in Fig. is loaded axially with a constant force of 10 kN. The bar material has been
heat treated and quenched to raise its strength, but as a consequence it has lost most of its ductility. It is desired to drill a
hole through the center of the 40-mm face of the plate to allow a cable to pass through it. A 4-mm hole is sufficient for the
cable to fit, but an 8-mm drill is readily available. Will a crack be more likely to initiate at the larger hole, the smaller hole,
or at the fillet?

Solution
Since the material is brittle, the effect of stress concentrations
near the discontinuities must be considered. Dealing with the
hole first, for a 4-mm hole, the nominal stress is

The theoretical stress concentration factor, from Fig., with d/w

= 4/40 = 0.1, is Kt = 2.7. The maximum stress is
Similarly, for an 8-mm hole,

With d/w = 8/40 = 0.2, then Kt = 2.5, and the maximum stress is

Though the stress concentration is higher with the 4-mm hole,

in this case the increased nominal stress with the 8-mm hole has
more effect on the maximum stress.
For the fillet,
From Fig., D/d = 40/34 = 1.18, and r/d = 1/34 = 0.026. Then Kt = 2.5.

The crack will most likely occur with the 8-mm hole, next
likely would be the 4-mm hole, and least likely at the fillet.
“ “Parts fail because their stresses exceed their strength,” and you would be right up to a point. The follow-up
question is the critical one; what kind of stresses cause the failure: Tensile? Compressive? Shear?
The answer to this one is the classic, “It depends.” It depends on the material in question and its relative strengths
in compression, tension, and shear. It also depends on the character of the loading (whether static or dynamic)
and on the presence or absence of cracks in the material.”

The generally accepted theories of failure are:

Ductile materials (yield criteria)

• Maximum shear stress theory (Coulomb, Tresca or Guest theory)

• Distortion energy theory (von Mises-Hencky theory)

Brittle materials (fracture criteria)

• Maximum principal/normal stress theory (Rankine’s theory)

 Maximum principal/normal stress theory (Rankine’s theory)

The theory states that the failure of the mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs whenever
one of the three principal stresses reaches or exceeds the yield or ultimate strength of the material as obtained from a
standard tensile or compressive test.

Given the principal stresses, s1 > s2 > s3 , the maximum normal

stress theory predicts the failure when

𝜎 1 ≥ 𝑆 𝑦𝑡 ¿ 𝑆𝑢𝑡 or 𝜎 3 ≤− 𝑆 𝑦𝑐 ¿ − 𝑆𝑢𝑐

If factor of safety is considered,

or

If stress concentration is considered,

or
Bi-axial stress
s1 > s2
𝜎 1 ≥ 𝑆 𝑦𝑡 ¿ 𝑆𝑢𝑡 or 𝜎 2 ≤ − 𝑆 𝑦𝑐 ¿ − 𝑆𝑢𝑐

or

(c) Ductile Material

(c) Brittle Material
Maximum shear stress theory (Coulomb, Tresca or Guest theory)

The theory states that the failure of a mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs
whenever the maximum shear stress at any point in the component equals or exceeds the maximum shear stress in a
tension test specimen of the same material, when yielding starts in the specimen.

Tension test of a specimen

In the tension test, the specimen is subjected to uniaxial stress
(s1) and (s2 = 0). The stress in the specimen of tension test and
the corresponding Mohr’s circle diagram are shown in Fig. b.
From the figure,

When the specimen starts yielding (s1 = Syt), the above equation
is written as
 For a general state of stress, three principal stresses can be
determined and ordered such that σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3.
Then,

The maximum shear stress for this particular case

𝜎1− 𝜎3
𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝜏 13 =
2

The maximum-shear-stress theory predicts failure/yielding

when

The limiting condition is:

 So, different possible cases of failure are given by

Bi-axial stress (s3 = 0)

for pure torsion

 Distortion energy theory (von Mises-Hencky theory)

The distortion-energy theory predicts that the failure/ yielding of the mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or
tri-axial stresses occurs when the distortion strain energy per unit volume at any point in the component reaches or
exceeds the distortion strain energy per unit volume for yield in simple tension or compression of the same material.

Strain energy
The total strain energy per unit volume at
any point

Extending this to a three-dimensional stress

state gives
 (a) Element with triaxial stresses; this element
undergoes both volume change and angular
distortion. (b) Element under hydrostatic normal
stresses undergoes only volume change. (c) Element
has angular distortion without volume change.

Hydrostatic Loading The uniform stresses in all directions, while creating volume change and potentially large strain
energies, cause no distortion of the part and thus no shear stress. Consider the Mohr’s circle for a specimen subjected
to σx = σy = σz = 1 MPa compressive stress and . The Mohr’s “circle” is a point on the σ axis at 1 MPa and σ1 = σ2 = σ3.
The shear stress is zero, so there is no distortion and no failure. This is true for ductile or brittle materials when the
principal stresses are identical in magnitude and sign.
Many experiments have shown that materials can be
hydrostatically stressed to levels well beyond their ultimate strengths in compression without failure, as this just
reduces the volume of the specimen without changing its shape.
Den Hartog describes the condition of rocks at great depth in the earth’s crust where they withstand uniform,
hydrostatic compressive stresses of 5500 psi/mile of depth due to the weight of the rock above. This is in
excess of their typical 3000 psi ultimate compressive strength as measured in a compression test. While it is
much more difficult to create hydrostatic tension, Den Hartog also describes such an experiment done by the
Russian scientist Joffe in which he slowly cooled a glass marble in liquid air, allowed it to equilibrate to a
stress-free state at the low temperature, then removed it to a warm room. As the marble warmed from the
outside in, the temperature differential versus its cold core created uniform tensile stresses calculated to be
well in excess of the material’s tensile strength, but it did not crack. Thus, it appears that distortion is the
culprit in tensile failure as well.
The total strain energy U is resolved into two
components—first Uh corresponding to the change of
volume with no distortion of the element and the second
Ud corresponding to the distortion of the element with no
change of volume. Therefore,

Now,

Adding the three principal stresses gives:

For a volumetric change with no distortion, the term in

parentheses in the above equation must be zero, giving an
expression for the volumetric or hydrostatic component of stress
σh :
The components s1d, s2d and s3d cause distortion of
the cube, while the component sh results in
volumetric change. Since the components s1d, s2d
and s3d do not change the volume of the cube,

Using Eq. (c)

The total strain energy per unit volume

….(1)

Now, the strain energy Uh associated with the hydrostatic volume change can be found by replacing each
principal stress in equation (1) with σh:
 Distortion energy

To obtain a failure criterion, we will compare the distortion energy per unit volume given by the above equation
to the distortion energy per unit volume present in a tensile test specimen at failure, because the tensile test is
our principal source of material-strength data. The failure stress of interest here is the yield strength Syt. The
tensile test is a uniaxial stress state where, at yield, σ1 = Syt and σ2 = σ3 = 0. The distortion energy associated
with yielding in the tensile test is found by substituting these values in the above equation:

𝑈 𝑑= ( 1+ 𝜈
3𝐸 )
𝑆 2𝑦𝑡
 for any mechanical component

𝑈 𝑑= ( 1+ 𝜈
3𝐸 )
𝑆 2𝑦𝑡 for tensile test specimen of the same material

The failure criterion is obtained by equating the above two equations

This effective stress is usually called the von Mises stress, σ', named after Dr. R. von Mises, who
contributed to the theory.

The von Mises stress is

Therefore, it can be concluded that when the von Mises stress of a mechanical component
reaches or exceeds yield stress of the same material then failure occurs.

When factor of safety is considered then (Syt / fs) has to be used in

place of Syt
 Failure Criteria:

For bi-axial / plane stress:(s3 = 0)     12   22   1 2

Using xyz components of three-dimensional stress, the von Mises stress can be written as

For bi-axial / plane stress:(s3 = 0)

    x2   y2   x y  3 xy2
Boundary for Distortion Energy
Theory under Bi-axial Stresses
Pure Shear:

Therefore, according to the distortion-energy theory, the yield

strength in shear is 0.577 times the yield strength in tension.
Comparison of Theories of Failure
Many tensile tests have been done on various materials. The data show statistical scatter
but in the aggregate tend to fit the distortion-energy ellipse fairly well. Figure shows
experimental data for two ductile steels, two ductile aluminum alloys, and a brittle cast iron
superposed on the failure envelopes for the three failure theories discussed above.
Example: The shaft of an overhang crank subjected to a force P of 1 kN is shown in Fig. (a). The shaft is made of
plain carbon steel 45C8 and the tensile yield strength is 380 N/mm 2. The factor of safety is 2. Determine the
diameter of the shaft using the maximum shear stress theory.
FATIGUE FAILURE:

Most failures in machinery are due to time-varying loads rather than to static loads. These failures typically occur at stress
levels significantly lower than the yield strengths of the materials. Thus, using only the static failure theories can lead to
unsafe designs when loads are dynamic.
In many applications, the components are subjected to forces, which are not static, but vary in magnitude with respect to
time. The stresses induced due to such forces are called fluctuating stresses. It is observed that about 80% of failures of
mechanical components are due to ‘fatigue failure’ resulting from fluctuating stresses.

Rotating Beam Subjected to Bending Moment:

(a) Beam, (b) Stress Cycle at Point A
 There are three types of mathematical models for cyclic stresses
—
In Fig., smax. and smin. are maximum and minimum stresses, while sm and sa are called mean stress and stress
amplitude respectively.
• fluctuating or alternating • repeated stresses (Fig. b) • Fully reversed stresses
stresses (Fig. a) (Fig. c)

where R is the stress ratio and A is the amplitude ratio.

• Fatigue failure results from repeated plastic deformation, such as the breaking of
a wire by bending it back and forth repeatedly.
• Whereas a wire can be broken after a few cycles of gross plastic yielding, fatigue
failures typically occur after thousands or even millions of cycles of minute
yielding that often exists only on a microscopic level. Fatigue failure can occur at
stress levels far below the conventionally determined yield point or elastic limit.

Fatigue failure is defined as time delayed fracture under cyclic loading.

When machine parts fail statically, they usually develop a very large deflection,
because the stress has exceeded the yield strength, and the part is replaced before
fracture actually occurs. Thus many static failures give visible warning in advance.
But a fatigue failure gives no warning! It is sudden and total, and hence dangerous. It
is relatively simple to design against a static failure, because our knowledge is
comprehensive. Fatigue is a much more complicated phenomenon, only partially
understood, and the engineer seeking competence must acquire as much knowledge
of the subject as possible.
Mechanism of Fatigue Failure:
Fatigue failures always begin at a crack. The crack may have been present in the material since its manufacture, or
it may have developed over time due to cyclic straining around stress concentrations.

Stage-I: Crack Initiation

• Stage I is the initiation of one or more microcracks due to cyclic plastic deformation*.
• Stage I cracks are not normally discernible to the naked eye.

*Assume that the material is a ductile metal and as manufactured has no cracks present but has the usual collection of particles, inclusions, etc.,
that are common to engineering materials. At a microscopic scale, metals are not homogeneous and isotropic. Assume further that there are some
regions of geometric stress concentration (notches) in locations of significant time-varying stress. As the stresses at the notch oscillate, local
yielding may occur due to the stress concentration, even though the nominal stress in the section is well below the yield strength of the material.
The localized plastic yielding causes distortion and creates slip bands (regions of intense deformation due to shear motion) along the crystal
boundaries of the material. As the stress cycles, additional slip bands occur and coalesce into microscopic cracks. Even in the absence of a notch
(as in smooth test specimens) this mechanism still operates as long as the yield strength is exceeded somewhere in the material. Preexisting
voids or inclusions will serve as stress raisers to start the crack.
Less ductile materials do not have the same ability to yield as ductile ones and will tend to develop cracks more rapidly. They are more notch
sensitive. Brittle (especially cast) materials which do not yield may skip this initiation stage and proceed directly to crack propagation at sites of
existing voids or inclusions that serve as microcracks.
Stage-II: Crack Propagation

Stage II progresses from microcracks to macrocracks forming parallel plateau-like fracture surfaces separated by
longitudinal ridges. The plateaus are generally smooth and normal to the direction of maximum tensile stress. These
surfaces can be wavy dark and light bands referred to as beach marks or clamshell marks, as seen in Fig. During cyclic
loading, these cracked surfaces open and close, rubbing together, and the beach mark appearance depends on the
changes in the level or frequency of loading and the corrosive nature of the environment.

Fatigue failure of a bolt due to repeated

unidirectional bending. The failure started
at the thread root at A, propagated across
most of the cross section shown by the
beach marks at B, before final fast fracture
at C.
Stage-III: Fracture
Stage III occurs during the final stress cycle when the remaining material cannot support the loads, resulting in a
sudden, fast fracture. A stage III fracture can be brittle, ductile, or a combination of both. Quite often the beach
marks, if they exist, and possible patterns in the stage III fracture called chevron lines, point toward the origins
of the initial cracks.
Endurance Limit
The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of completely reversed stress that
the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number of cycles without fatigue failure.
Since the fatigue test cannot be conducted for unlimited or infinite number of cycles, 10 6 cycles is considered as a
sufficient number of cycles to define the endurance limit.

There is another term called fatigue life, which is frequently used with endurance limit. The fatigue life is defined as
the number of stress cycles that the standard specimen can complete during the test before the appearance of the first
fatigue crack.

The endurance limit, in a true sense, is not exactly a property of material like ultimate tensile
strength. It is affected by factors such as the size of the component, shape of component, the
surface finish, temperature and the notch sensitivity of the material.
The Stress-Life Method
To determine the strength of materials under the action of fatigue loads, specimens are subjected to repeated or
varying forces of specified magnitudes while the cycles or stress reversals are counted to destruction. The most widely
used fatigue-testing device is the R. R. Moore high-speed rotating-beam machine as shown in Fig. (a). This machine
subjects the specimen to pure bending (no transverse shear) by means of weights. The specimen, shown in Fig. (b), is
very carefully machined and polished, with a final polishing in an axial direction to avoid circumferential scratches.

(a)

(b)
S-N Curve:
Rotating-Beam Test The bulk of available fully reversed, fatigue strength data comes from the R. R. Moore rotating-beam
test in which a highly polished specimen is mounted in a fixture which allows a constant-magnitude, pure bending moment to
be applied while the specimen is rotated at 1725 rpm. This creates a fully reversed bending stress at any point on the
circumference of the specimen. It is run at one particular stress level until it fails, and the number of cycles to failure and the
applied stress level is recorded.
This test is repeated with multiple specimens of the same material loaded at different stress levels. The collected data are then
plotted as normalized failure strength, Sf / Sut against number of cycles, N, (typically on log-log coordinates) to obtain an S-N
diagram.
For ferrous materials like steels, the S–N
curve becomes asymptotic at 106 cycles, which
indicates the stress amplitude corresponding
to infinite number of stress cycles. The
magnitude of this stress amplitude at 106
cycles represents the endurance limit of the
material. The S–N curve shown in Fig. is valid
only for ferrous metals. For nonferrous metals
like aluminum alloys, the S–N curve slopes
gradually even after 106 cycles. These
materials do not exhibit a distinct value of the
endurance limit in a true sense. For these
materials, endurance limit stress is sometimes
expressed as a function of the number of stress
cycles.
The body of knowledge available on fatigue
failure from N = 1 to N = 1000 cycles is generally
classified as low-cycle fatigue, as indicated in Fig.
High-cycle fatigue, then, is concerned with failure
corresponding to stress cycles greater than 10 3
cycles.
Failure of studs on truck wheels, failure of
setscrews for locating gears on shafts or failures of
short-lived devices such as missiles are the
examples of low-cycle fatigue. The failure of
machine components such as springs, ball
bearings or gears that are subjected to fluctuating
stresses, are the examples of high-cycle fatigue.
We also distinguish a finite-life region and an
infinite-life region in Fig. The boundary between
these regions cannot be clearly defined except for
a specific material; but it lies somewhere between
106 and 107 cycles for steels, as shown in Fig.
Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor

It was earlier pointed out that the existence of irregularities or discontinuities, such as holes, grooves, or notches, in a
part increases the theoretical stresses significantly in the immediate vicinity of the discontinuity. A theoretical stress
concentration factor Kt (or Kts ) is used with the nominal stress to obtain the maximum resulting stress due to the
irregularity or defect.
However, It turns out that some materials are not fully sensitive to the presence of notches for fluctuating stresses and
hence, for these, a reduced value of Kt can be used. For these materials, the effective maximum stress in fatigue is,

where Kf is a reduced value of Kt and σ0 is the nominal stress. The factor Kf is commonly called a fatigue stress-
concentration factor, and hence the subscript f. So it is convenient to think of Kf as a stress-concentration factor reduced
from Kt because of lessened sensitivity to notches. The resulting factor is defined by the equation
Notch Sensitivity (q)
Notch sensitivity is defined as the susceptibility of a material to succumb to the damaging effects of stress raising
notches in fatigue loading.

Increase of actual max. stress over nominal stress

𝑞=
Increase of theoretical m ax . over nominal stress

𝑘𝑓 𝜎 𝑜− 𝜎𝑜
¿
𝑘𝑡 𝜎 𝑜 − 𝜎 𝑜

𝑘𝑓 −1
¿
𝑘𝑡 − 1
where q is usually between zero and unity. The above equation shows that if q = 0, then Kf = 1, and the material has no
sensitivity to notches at all. On the other hand, if q = 1, then Kf = Kt, and the material has full notch sensitivity. In
analysis or design work, find Kt first, from the geometry of the part. Then specify the material, find q, and solve for Kf
from the equation
Notch sensitivities for specific materials are obtained experimentally. Published experimental values are limited, but
some values are available for steels and aluminum. It is always safe to use Kf = Kt if there is any doubt about the true
value of q. Also, note that q is not far from unity for large notch radius.
Endurance Limit Modifying Factors

The rotating-beam specimen used in the laboratory to determine endurance limits is prepared very carefully and tested
under closely controlled conditions. It is unrealistic to expect the endurance limit of a mechanical or structural member
to match the values obtained in the laboratory. Some modifying factors are

• Material: composition, basis of failure, variability

• Manufacturing: method, heat treatment, fretting corrosion, surface condition, stress concentration
• Environment: corrosion, temperature, stress state, relaxation times
• Design: size, shape, life, stress state, speed, fretting, galling

Two separate notations are used for endurance limit, viz, (S'e) and (Se) where,
S'e = endurance limit stress of a rotating beam specimen subjected to reversed bending stress (N/mm2)
Se = endurance limit stress of a particular mechanical component subjected to reversed bending stress (N/mm2)
There is an approximate relationship between the endurance limit and the ultimate tensile strength (Sut) of the
material.

These relationships are based on 50% reliability.

The relationship between (Se) and (S'e) considering four major modifying factors is as follows

′
𝑆 𝑒=𝐾 𝑎 𝐾 𝑏 𝐾 𝑐 𝐾 𝑑 𝐾 𝑒 𝑆𝑒

Ke = Load factor
 ′
𝑆 𝑒=𝐾 𝑎 𝐾 𝑏 𝐾 𝑐 𝐾 𝑑 𝐾 𝑒 𝑆𝑒
(i) Surface finish Factor (Ka)

The surface of the rotating beam specimen is polished

to mirror finish. The final polishing is carried out in
the axial direction to smooth out any circumferential
scratches. This makes the specimen almost free from
surface scratches and imperfections. It is impractical
to provide such an expensive surface finish for the
actual component. The actual component may not
even require such a surface finish. When the surface
finish is poor, there are scratches and geometric
irregularities
on the surface. These surface scratches serve as stress
raisers and result in stress concentration. The
endurance limit is reduced due to introduction of stress
concentration at these scratches. The surface finish
factor takes into account the reduction in endurance
limit due to the variation in the surface finish between
the specimen and the actual component.
Shigley and Mischke have suggested an exponential equation for the surface finish factor. This equation is based on
experimental data points obtained by Noll and Lipson. This equation is in the following form,

The above mentioned values of surface finish factors are developed only for steel components. They should not be
applied to components made of other ductile materials like aluminium alloys.
The surface finish factor for ordinary grey cast iron components is taken as 1, irrespective of their surface finish. It is
observed that even mirror finished samples of grey cast iron parts have surface discontinuities because of graphite flakes
in the cast iron matrix. Adding some more surface scratches does not make any difference.
 ′
𝑆 𝑒=𝐾 𝑎 𝐾 𝑏 𝐾 𝑐 𝐾 𝑑 𝐾 𝑒 𝑆𝑒
(ii) Size Factor (Kb )

The rotating beam specimen is small with 7.5 mm diameter. The larger the machine part, the greater the probability
that a flaw exist somewhere in the component.

Shigley and Mischke have suggested an exponential equation for the size factor. For bending and torsion, the
equation is in the following form:

For axial loading there is no size effect, so

One of the problems that arises in using the above method is what to do when a round bar in bending is not rotating, or
when a noncircular cross section is used. For example, what is the size factor for a bar 6 mm thick and 40 mm wide?

The approach to be used here employs an equivalent diameter obtained by Kuguel’s equality.

According to Kuguel’s equality, the effective diameter is obtained by equating the volume of the material stressed at and
above 95% of the maximum stress to the equivalent volume in the rotating beam specimen.
It turns out that when these two volumes are equated, the lengths cancel, and so we need only consider the areas.

The rotating beam specimen is subjected to bending

stresses. Therefore, the area (A95) stressed above
95% of the maximum stress is the area of a ring,
having an inside diameter of (0.95d) and an outside
diameter of (d).

The ‘effective’ diameter of any non-circular

cross-section is then given by,
 ……..(1)

For nonrotating solid shaft, the 95 percent stress area is twice

the area outside of two parallel chords having a spacing of
0.95d, where d is the diameter. Using an exact computation, this
is
……..(2)

Inserting Eq. (2) in Eq. (1), one obtains

Fig. A95 Areas of
Common
Nonrotating
Structural
Shapes
 ′
𝑆 𝑒=𝐾 𝑎 𝐾 𝑏 𝐾 𝑐 𝐾 𝑑 𝐾 𝑒 𝑆𝑒
(iii) Reliability Factor (Kc )

Many of the reported strength data are mean values.

There is considerable scatter in multiple tests of the same
material under the same test conditions. Haugen and
Wirsching report that the standard deviations of
endurance strengths of steels seldom exceed 8% of their
mean values. Table shows reliability factors for an
assumed 8% standard deviation. Note that a 50%
reliability has a factor of 1 and the factor reduces as you
choose higher reliability. For example, if you wish to
have 99.99% probability that your samples meet or
exceed the assumed strength, multiply the mean strength
value by 0.702.
 ′
𝑆 𝑒=𝐾 𝑎 𝐾 𝑏 𝐾 𝑐 𝐾 𝑑 𝐾 𝑒 𝑆𝑒

(iv) Modifying Factor to account for stress concentration (K d )

The endurance limit is reduced due to stress concentration. The stress concentration factor used for cyclic loading is
less than the theoretical stress concentration factor due to the notch sensitivity of the material. To apply the effect of
stress concentration, the designer can reduce the endurance limit by (Kd) which is defined as,
 ′
𝑆 𝑒=𝐾 𝑎 𝐾 𝑏 𝐾 𝑐 𝐾 𝑑 𝐾 𝑒 𝑆𝑒
(v) Load Factor (Ke )

When the component is subjected to an axial fluctuating load, the conditions are different. In axial loading, the entire
cross-section is uniformly stressed to the maximum value. In the rotating beam test, the specimen is subjected to
bending stress. The bending stress is zero at the centre of cross-section and negligible in the vicinity of centre. It is only
the outer region near the surface, which is subjected to maximum stress. There is more likelihood of a microcrack being
present in the much higher high stress field of axial loading than in the smaller volume outer region of the rotating beam
specimen. Therefore, endurance limit in axial loading is lower than the rotating beam test.

The average values of the load factor is given as

Other modifying Factor

Temperature
Fatigue tests are most commonly done at room temperature. The fracture toughness decreases at low temperatures and
increases at moderately high temperatures (up to about 350°C). But, the endurance-limit knee in the S-N diagram
disappears at high temperatures, making the fatigue strength continue to decline with number of cycles, N. Also, the
yield strength declines continuously with temperatures above room ambient and, in some cases, this can cause yielding
before fatigue failure.
Several approximate formulas have been proposed to account for the reduction in endurance limit at moderately high
temperatures. A temperature factor Ktemp can be defined. Shigley and Mitchell suggest the following:

Note that these criteria are based on data for steels and should not be used for other metals such as Al, Mg, and Cu
alloys.
Corrosion
It is to be expected that parts that operate in a corrosive atmosphere will have a lowered fatigue resistance. This is, of
course, true, and it is due to the roughening or pitting of the surface by the corrosive material. But the problem is not
so simple as the one of finding the endurance limit of a specimen that has been corroded. The reason for this is that the
corrosion and the stressing occur at the same time. Basically, this means that in time any part will fail when subjected
to repeated stressing in a corrosive atmosphere. There is no fatigue limit. Thus the designer’s problem is to attempt to
minimize the factors that affect the fatigue life; these are:
• Mean or static stress, • Alternating stress, • Electrolyte concentration, • Dissolved oxygen in electrolyte, • Material
properties and composition, • Temperature, • Cyclic frequency, • Fluid flow rate around specimen, • Local crevices
Electrolytic Plating
Metallic coatings, such as chromium plating, nickel plating, or cadmium plating, reduce the endurance limit by as
much as 50 percent. In some cases the reduction by coatings has been so severe that it has been necessary to eliminate
the plating process. Zinc plating does not affect the fatigue strength. Anodic oxidation of light alloys reduces bending
endurance limits by as much as 39 percent but has no effect on the torsional
endurance limit.
Metal Spraying
Metal spraying results in surface imperfections that can initiate cracks. Limited tests show reductions of 14 percent in
the fatigue strength.
Cyclic Frequency
If, for any reason, the fatigue process becomes time-dependent, then it also becomes frequency-dependent. Under
normal conditions, fatigue failure is independent of frequency. But when corrosion or high temperatures, or both, are
encountered, the cyclic rate becomes important. The slower the frequency and the higher the temperature, the higher
the crack propagation rate and the shorter the life at a given stress level.
Creating Estimated S-N Diagrams
The bandwidth of interest is the High Cycle Fatigue (HCF) regime from 10 3 to 106 cycles and beyond. Let the material
strength at 103 cycles be called Sm. Test data indicate that the following estimates of Sm are reasonable:

The estimated S-N diagram can now be drawn on log-log

axes as shown in Figure. The x axis runs from N = 103 to
N = 109 cycles or beyond. The appropriate Sm from the
above equation for the type of loading is plotted at N =
103.
When the component is to be designed for infinite life (≥
106), the endurance limit becomes the criterion of failure.
The amplitude stress induced in such components should
be lower than the endurance limit in order to withstand the
infinite number of cycles.
For Finite life (≤ 106 ), the Sf is the fatigue safe stress to be
calculated from S-N diagram.
Problem: Create an estimated S-N diagram for a steel bar. How many cycles of life can be expected if the alternating
stress amplitude is 100 MPa?
The Sut has been tested at 600 MPa. The bar is 150 mm square and has a hot-rolled finish. The operating temperature
is 500°C maximum. The loading will be fully reversed bending. Assumptions Infinite life is required and is obtainable
since this ductile steel will have an endurance limit. A reliability factor of 99.9% will be used.

Solution:
For Steel,

Now,
Calculation of Ka :
hot-rolled finish
From Fig.

Alternative way

Any one of the two values can be taken. We will take the first
value, i.e., 0.6
Calculation of Kb :
The part is larger than the test specimen and is not round, so an
equivalent diameter based on its 95% stressed area (A95) must be
determined and used to find the size factor. For a rectangular
section in nonrotating bending loading, the A95 area is defined in
Figure and the equivalent diameter is found from equation
From Fig.

Alternative way
Calculation of Kc :
99.9% reliable
From Table.
 Calculation of Kd :
No notch is mentioned and Notch sensitivity is not specified. No
requirement of Kd
So,

Calculation of Ke :
Fully reversed bending
So,
Calculation of Ktemp :
Temperature is mentioned as 500°C
So,
 =101.655 MPa

Final value of endurance limit

From S-N diagram, log 10 ( 𝑆𝑢𝑡 ) A
The estimated life for 100 MPa
log 10 ( 0 . 9 𝑆𝑢𝑡 )
stress amplitude is given by point
F. F
log 10 ( 𝑆 𝑓 ) E
log 10 ( 𝑆𝑒 )
D C B

From Fig.,

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
log 10 ( 𝑁 )

The estimated life for 100 Mpa

Fatigue Failure Criteria for Fluctuating Stress with nonzero mean stress
When a component is subjected to fluctuating stresses as shown in Fig. (a), there is mean stress ( sm) as well as stress
amplitude (sa). It has been observed that the mean stress component has an effect on fatigue failure when it is present in
combination with an alternating component.
The fatigue diagram for this general case is shown in Fig. b. In this
diagram, the mean stress is plotted on the abscissa. The stress
amplitude is plotted on the ordinate. The magnitudes of ( sm) and (sa)
depend upon the magnitudes of maximum and minimum force acting
on the component.
When stress amplitude (sa) is zero, the load is purely static and the
criterion of failure is Sut or Syt. These limits are plotted on the abscissa.
When the mean stress (sm) is zero, the stress is completely reversing
and the criterion of failure is the endurance limit Se that is plotted on
the ordinate.
When the component is subjected to both components of stress, viz.,
(sm) and (sa), the actual failure occurs at different scattered points
shown in Fig. b. There exists a border, which divides safe region from
unsafe region for various combinations of ( sm) and (sa). Different
criterions are proposed to construct the borderline dividing safe zone
and failure zone. They include Gerber line, Soderberg line and
Goodman line. (b)
Gerber Line A parabolic curve joining Se on the
ordinate to Sut on the abscissa is called the Gerber
line.

Soderberg Line A straight line joining Se on the

ordinate to Syt on the abscissa is called the Soderberg
line.

Goodman Line A straight line joining Se on the

ordinate to Sut on the abscissa is called the Goodman
line.
Considering the modified Goodman line as a criterion, point A represents a limiting point with an alternating strength Sa and
mean strength Sm. The slope of the load line shown is defined as r = Sa / Sm = sa /sm

Goodman Line
The criterion equation for the Goodman line is

The stresses nσa and nσm can replace Sa and Sm,

where n is the design factor or factor of safety.
Then, the Goodman line becomes

B
sa

sm
Modified Goodman Line

CDE line is modified Goodman line.

B
sa
E
sm
Soderberg Line

The criterion equation for the Soderberg line is

The stresses nσa and nσm can replace Sa and Sm,

where n is the design factor or factor of safety.
Then, the Soderberg line becomes
 Gerber Line

The criterion equation for the Gerber line is

The stresses nσa and nσm can replace Sa and Sm,

where n is the design factor or factor of safety.
Then, the Gerber line becomes
Example: A cantilever beam made of cold drawn steel 40C8 (S ut = 600 N/mm2 and Syt = 380 N/mm2) is shown in Fig. The
force P acting at the free end varies from –50 N to +150 N. The expected reliability is 90% and the factor of safety is 2.
The notch sensitivity factor at the fillet is 0.9. Determine the diameter ‘d’ of the beam at the fillet cross-section.
 32 ( 𝑀 𝑏 )𝑎 101859 . 16
𝜎 𝑎= 3
≈ 3
𝜋 𝑑 𝑑

32 ( 𝑀 𝑏 )𝑚 50929 . 58
𝜎 𝑚= 3
≈ 3
𝜋 𝑑 𝑑
 32 ( 𝑀 𝑏 )𝑎 101859 . 16
𝜎 𝑎= 3
≈ 3
𝜋 𝑑 𝑑

32 ( 𝑀 𝑏 )𝑚 50929 . 58
𝜎 𝑚= 3
≈ 3
𝜋 𝑑 𝑑

Coordinate of B = (sm , sa)

Goodman Line

n = factor of safety
By using above equation
𝑑=12 .13 𝑚𝑚
 Coordinate of B = (sm , sa) = (28.56, 57.07)

Coordinate of A = (Sm , Sa) = (nsm , nsa) = (57.07, 114.14)

Slope r = Sa / Sm = sa / sm = 2

Coordinate of D = Intersection of Goodman line and yield line

F

Assignment 1:
Determine the coordinate of point F.
Prove that if the design is done considering the fact that the load line intersect yield line on the section DE (shown
by red line in the figure) then
d = 9.29 mm, (sm , sa) = (50, 100), (Sm , Sa) = (nsm , nsa) = (100, 200)
which contradicts the above result, i.e. the load line can not cross the yield line on section DE, and the load line
only cross yield line on point F. So, the above result of design is correct.
Determine the diameter according to Soderberg line and Gerber line.
FATIGUE DESIGN UNDER COMBINED STRESSES
The problems discussed so far are based on the construction of the modified Goodman diagram for the component,
which is subjected to either axial load or bending moment or torsional moment. Each type of loading is considered
separately. In practice, the problems are more complicated because the component may be subjected to two-
dimensional stresses, or to combined bending and torsional moments. In case of two-dimensional stresses, each of the
two stresses may have two components— mean and alternating. Similarly, the bending moment as well as torsional
moment may have two components—mean and alternating. Such problems involving combination of stresses are
solved by the distortion energy theory of failure. The most general equation of the distortion energy theory is as
follows:

In case of two-dimensional stresses,

The mean and alternating components of sx are sxm and sxa respectively. Similarly, the mean and alternating
components of sy are sym and sya respectively. In this analysis, the mean and alternating components are separately
combined by the above equation. i.e.,
In case of combined bending and torsional moments, there is a normal stress sx accompanied by the torsional shear
stress txy. Substituting sy = sz = tyz = tzx = 0 in the above equation,

The mean and alternating components of sx are sxm and sxa respectively. Similarly, the mean and alternating
components of txy are txym and txya respectively. Combining these components separately by the above equation,
Example A machine component is subjected to two-dimensional stresses. The tensile stress in the X direction varies
from 40 to 100 N/mm2 while the tensile stress in the Y direction varies from 10 to 80 N/mm 2. The frequency of
variation of these stresses is equal. The corrected endurance limit of the component is 270 N/mm 2. The ultimate
tensile strength of the material of the component is 660 N/mm 2. Determine the factor of safety used by the designer.
 (sm , sa) = (61.44, 32.79)

Goodman Line

n = factor of safety

Determine the factor of safety according to Soderberg line and Gerber line.
Fully reversed stress:

𝑆𝑒 𝑘𝑎 𝑘𝑏 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑 𝑆′𝑒
( 𝜎𝑎 )= 𝑓 . 𝑠 . = 𝑓 .𝑠.
′
𝑘 𝑎 𝑘 𝑏 𝑘 𝑐 𝑆𝑒
𝑘𝑓 𝜎 𝑎=
𝑓 .𝑠 .
Fluctuating stress:

Goodman line:
Goodman line:

Sa

Sm
Load line:
Both alternating and mean stress components can increase under service conditions,
but their ratio will remain constant.
i.e.,
Sa

Sm
 sa sa
sm= 0
Sut Sut
100
sm + N+
G
Se Se
108
N
10 2
10 4
10 6 10 8
0 sm
Sut
G
Shaft, key and
coupling
The term shaft usually refers to a relatively long member of round cross section that rotates and transmits power. One
or more members such as gears, sprockets, pulleys, and cams are usually mounted on the shaft by means of pins, keys,
splines, snap rings, and other devices.
Shaft Material
In order to minimize deflections, steel is the logical choice for a shaft material because of its high modulus of
elasticity, though cast or nodular iron is sometimes also used, especially if gears or other attachments are integrally
cast with the shaft.
Most machine shafts are made from low- to medium-carbon steel, either cold rolled or hot rolled, though alloy steels
are also used where their higher strengths are needed. Cold-rolled steel is more often used for smaller-diameter shafts
(< about 76 mm diameter ) and hot-rolled used for larger sizes.

Many shafts are made from low carbon, cold-drawn or hot-rolled steel, such as ANSI 1020-1050 steels.
SHAFT POWER
The power transmitted through a shaft can be found from first principles. In any rotating system, instantaneous power is the
product of torque and angular velocity,
P = Tω
SHAFT LOADS
The most general shaft-loading case is that of a fluctuating torque and a fluctuating moment in combination. There can be
axial loads as well, if the shaft axis is vertical or is fitted with helical or worm gears having an axial force component.
The combination of a bending moment and a torque on a rotating shaft creates multiaxial varying stresses.
Shaft Design against static load on strength basis

(i) Shaft subjected to axial load only

P P

d
Solid shaft:
Solid shaft

𝑃 P P

do
Hollow shaft: 𝜎 𝑡=
𝜋

di
4
( 𝑑 2𝑜 − 𝑑 2𝑖 )

Hollow shaft
(ii) Shaft subjected to bending moment only

Mb Mb

d
Solid shaft:

Solid shaft

do
Hollow shaft: Mb Mb

di
Hollow shaft
(iii) Shaft subjected to torsional moment only

d
Solid shaft:

Solid shaft Mt

do
Hollow shaft:
Mt

di
Hollow shaft
 (iv) Shaft subjected to combined bending and torsional moment only
32 𝑀 𝑏 Mb Mb

d
𝜎 𝑏= 3
=bending stressinduced due ¿ bendingmoment
𝜋𝑑
16 𝑀 𝑡 Solid shaft Mt
𝜏= =Shear stress induced due ¿ torsional moment
𝜋 𝑑3
Maximum Principal Stress:
t
t
sb sb

t
t
Maximum Shear Stress:
 Maximum Principal stress theory Maximum Shear stress theory

16
𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜋𝑑
3 [√ ( 𝑀 𝑏 ) + ( 𝑀 𝑡) ]
2 2

The permissible value of maximum shear

The permissible value of maximum principal
stress is given by,
stress is given by,
𝑆 𝑦𝑡 𝑆 𝑦𝑠 0 .5 𝑆 𝑦𝑡
𝜎 1= 𝜏= =
𝑓 . 𝑠. 𝑓 .𝑠. 𝑓 .𝑠.

Syt = yield stress of the material in tension

ASME Code for Shaft Design ( consideration of shock and fatigue / fluctuating load)

According to this code, the permissible shear stress tmax for the shaft without keyways is taken as 30% of yield strength
in tension or 18% of the ultimate tensile strength of the material, whichever is minimum. Therefore,
tmax = 0.30 Syt
or, tmax = 0.18 Sut (whichever is minimum)
If keyways are present, the above values are to be reduced by 25 per cent.
According to the ASME code, the bending and torsional moments are to be multiplied by factors kb and kt respectively, to
account for shock and fatigue in operating condition. The ASME code is based on maximum shear stress theory of failure.
Therefore,
16
𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜋𝑑
3[√ ( 𝑘 𝑏 𝑀 𝑏 )
2
+ ( ]
𝑘 𝑡 𝑀 𝑡 )
2

kb = combined shock and fatigue factor applied

to bending moment
kt = combined shock and fatigue factor applied
to torsional moment
Shaft Design on Torsional Rigidity Basis
In some applications, the shafts are designed based on either torsional rigidity or lateral rigidity.

This Equation is used to design the shaft on the basis of

torsional rigidity. The permissible angle of twist for
machine tool applications is 0.25° per metre length. For
line shafts, 3° per metre length is the limiting value.
Modulus of rigidity for steel is 79300 N/mm 2 or
approximately 80 kN/mm2.
Example: A transmission shaft, supporting two pulleys A and B and mounted between two bearings C and D is shown
in Fig. Power is transmitted from the pulley A to B. The shaft is made of plain carbon steel 45C8 (Sut = 600 and Syt =
380 N/mm2). The pulleys are keyed to the shaft. Determine the shaft diameter using the ASME code if, kb = 1.5 and kt
= 1.0.

Solution
Given Sut = 600 N/mm2 , Syt = 380 N/mm2
kb =1.5, kt = 1
Diameter of Pulley A (da) = 200 mm
Diameter of Pulley B (db) = 300 mm

Step I Permissible shear stress

tmax = 0.30 Syt = 0.30(380) = 114 N/mm2
tmax = 0.18 Sut = 0.18(600) = 108 N/mm2

The lower of the two values is 108 N/mm2

and there are keyways on the shaft (i.e.
reduce the lower value by 25 %).
16
𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜋𝑑
3 [√ (𝑘 𝑏
2 2
𝑀 𝑏 ) + ( 𝑘𝑡 𝑀 𝑡 ) ]
Step II Calculation of Torsional Moment / Torque

The torque transmitted by the pulley A is equal to

torque received by the pulley B.
The value of Torque is given by

=150000 N-mm

150000 N/mm2

a.) Torque diagram

Step III Calculation of Bending Moment

Vertical Plane:

Vertical load on point A = (2000+500) N = 2500 N (↓)

Vertical load on point B =

= 1732.05 N (↑)
Reaction at C and D are RCV and RDV , respectively.
2500 N RDV

Vertical load diagram

RCV 1732.05 N

136709 N-mm

89871 N-mm

Vertical Bending Moment Diagram

Step III Calculation of Bending Moment

Horizontal Plane:

Horizontal load on point A = 0 N

Vertical load on point B =

= 1000 N
Horizontal Reaction at C and D are RCH and RDH ,
respectively. 1000 N

Horizontal load diagram

RCH RDH
100000 N-mm

33333 N-mm

Horizontal Bending Moment Diagram

 2500 N RDV 1000 N

Vertical load diagram

Horizontal load diagram

RCV 1732.05 N RDH

RCH
136709 N-mm 100000 N-mm

89871 N-mm 33333 N-mm

Vertical Bending Moment Diagram Horizontal Bending Moment Diagram

Maximum bending moment (Mb) = MA = 140714.03 N-mm

kb = 1.5, kt = 1

Maximum bending moment (Mb) = 140714.03 N-mm

Torsional Moment (Mt) =150000 N-mm

d =25.35 mm
Also, determine the shaft diameter based on torsional rigidity, if the permissible angle of twist between the two
pulleys is 0.5° and the modulus of rigidity is 79 300 N/mm2.

Torsional Moment (Mt) =150000 N-mm

584 𝑀 𝑡 𝑙
𝜃= 4
𝐺𝑑

150000 N/mm2

a.) Torque diagram

 Alternative approach of shaft design under fluctuating load

Bending, torsion, and axial stresses may be present in both mean and alternating components. For analysis, it is simple
enough to combine the different types of stresses into alternating and mean von Mises stresses. It is sometimes convenient
to customize the equations specifically for shaft applications. Axial loads are usually comparatively very small at critical
locations where bending and torsion dominate, so they will be left out of the following equations.
The fluctuating stresses due to bending and torsion are given by

M M

d
Solid shaft T

where Mm and Ma are the midrange and alternating bending moments, Tm and Ta are the midrange and alternating torques,
and Kf and Kf s are the fatigue stress-concentration factors for bending and torsion, respectively.
Assuming a solid shaft with round cross section, appropriate geometry terms can be introduced for c, I, and J resulting in
Combining these stresses in accordance with the distortion energy failure theory, the von Mises stresses for rotating
round, solid shafts, neglecting axial loads, are given by

The fatigue failure criteria for the modified Goodman line as expressed previously is
′
𝑆 𝑒 = 𝐾 𝑎 𝐾 𝑏 𝐾 𝑐 𝑆𝑒

For design purposes, it is also desirable to solve the equation for the diameter. This results in
 For the bicycle pedal arm assembly in Figure assume a rider-applied force that ranges from 0 to 1500 N at each pedal each cycle.
Design a suitable shaft to connect the two pedal arms and carry the sprocket against a step. Use the fatigue safety factor of 2 and a
material with Sut = 500 MPa. The shaft has a square detail on each end where it inserts into the pedal arms.

Consider the free body diagram of the pedal-arm assembly from a bicycle with the pedal arm in the horizontal
position and dimension as shown in Fig. Assume a rider-applied force that ranges from 0 to 1500 N at the pedal each
cycle.
The following general principles should be kept in mind for overall shaft design.
1. Keep shafts as short as possible, with bearings close to the applied loads. This reduces deflections and bending moments and increases
critical speeds.
2. Place necessary stress raisers away from highly stressed shaft regions if possible. If not possible, use generous radii and good surface
finishes. Consider local surface-strengthening processes (as shot peening or cold rolling).
3. Use inexpensive steels for deflection-critical shafts, as all steels have essentially the same elastic modulus.
4. When weight is critical, consider hollow shafts. For example, propeller shafts on rear-wheel-drive cars are made of tubing in order to
obtain the low-weight–stiffness ratio needed to keep critical speeds above the operating range.
The maximum allowable deflection of a shaft is usually determined by critical speed, gear, or bearing requirements. Critical speed
requirements vary greatly with the specific application.
Allowable shaft deflections for satisfactory gear and bearing performance vary with the gear or bearing design and with the application,
but the following can be used as a general guide.
1. Deflections should not cause mating gear teeth to separate more than about 0.13 mm (0.005 in.), nor should they cause the relative slope
of the gear axes to change more than about 0.03 ∘.
2. The shaft (journal) deflection across a plain bearing must be small compared to the thickness of the oil film. If the angular deflection of
the shaft at the bearing is excessive, the shaft will bind unless the bearings are self-aligning.
3. The shaft angular deflection at a ball or roller bearing should generally not exceed 0.04 ∘ unless the bearing is self-aligning.
Keys, Splines, Pins
•When power is to be transmitted to, or supplied
from, a rotating shaft, it is necessary to attach
components such as pulleys, sprockets, or gears to
the shaft. To prevent relative rotation between the
shaft and an attached component, the connection
between the component’s hub and the shaft must be
secured. Retention devices such as keys, splines, or
tapered fits are commonly used to prevent such
relative rotation. For lighter-duty applications, pins
or setscrews may be used, sometimes in conjunction
with retaining rings to provide axial constraint of the
shaft-mounted component.
Keys are usually made of cold-finished low-
carbon steel (as SAE or AISI 1020), but heat-
treated alloy steels are used when greater
strength is required.
Parallel / Sunk key
A parallel key is square or rectangular in cross section and of constant height and width over its length.
A sunk key is a key in which half the thickness of the key fits into the keyway on the shaft and the remaining half in
the keyway on the hub.

b
Square key:
h/2
h
Flat/Rectangular key:

l
Taper Keys and Gib Head Keys
Taper keys [Figure (a) and (b)] are designed to be inserted from the end of the shaft after the hub is in position rather than
installing the key first and then sliding the hub over the key as with parallel keys. The taper extends over at least the length
of the hub, and the height, h, measured at the end of the hub, is the same as for the parallel key. The taper is typically 1 in
100.
The gib head key [Figure (c)] has a tapered geometry inside the hub that is the same as that of the plain taper key. But the
extended head provides the means of extracting the key from the same end at which it was installed. This is very desirable if
the opposite end is not accessible to drive the key out.
The width of a tapered key for a given shaft diameter is the same as for a parallel key. The taper and gib-head size are
defined in the standard.
Woodruff Keys
Woodruff keys are used on smaller shafts. They are self-aligning, so are preferred for tapered shafts. The penetration of a
Woodruff key into the hub is the same as that of a square key, i.e., half the key width. The semicircular shape creates a
deeper keyseat in the shaft, which resists key-rolling, but weakens the shaft compared to a square or tapered keyseat.
Feather Key Kennedy Key
A feather key is a parallel key The Kennedy key consists of two square keys as shown in
which is fixed either to the Fig. In this case, the hub is bored off the centre and the
shaft or to the hub and which two keys force the hub and the shaft to a concentric
permits relative axial position. Kennedy key is used for heavy duty
movement between them. applications.
Pin Keys
The pin key, shown in Figure, is a cylindrical pin placed in a cylindrical groove in the shaft and hub. Lower stress
concentration factors result from this design as compared with parallel or taper keys. A close fit between the pin and the
groove is required to ensure that the pin does not move and that the bearing is uniform along the length of the pin.
Splines
Splines (Figure) act like multiple keys. They have either involute or straight-sided profiles, the former being the usual
type in modern machinery. Involute splines usually have a 30 ∘ pressure angle and one-half the depth of standard gear
teeth (other standard pressure angles are 37.5 ∘ and 45∘). The fit between mating splines is characterized as sliding,
close, or press.
Saddle Keys
A saddle key is a key which fits in the keyway of the hub only. In this case, there is no keyway on the shaft. There are
two types of saddle keys, namely, hollow and flat, as shown in Fig. A hollow saddle key has a concave surface at the
bottom to match the circular surface of the shaft. A flat saddle key has a flat surface at the bottom, and it sits on the
flat surface machined on the shaft. In both types of saddle keys, friction between the shaft, key and hub prevents
relative motion between the shaft and the hub. The power is transmitted by means of friction. Therefore, saddle keys
are suitable for light duty or low power transmission as compared with sunk keys.
 Stresses in Square and Flat Key
The exact location of the force P on the surface AC is unknown. In order to simplify the analysis, it is assumed that the
force P is tangential to the shaft diameter.

Therefore,

Shear Stress / Shear Failure: Crushing Stress / Bearing Failure:

Stresses in Kennedy key

Shear Stress / Shear Failure:

Crushing Stress / Bearing Failure:

Prove the above relation.

Torque equation of a straight sided spline
 Coupling
Mechanical couplings used to connect rotating shafts are typically divided into two broad categories: rigid couplings and
flexible couplings.
Rigid Couplings Flexible coupling
advantages advantages
 simple, inexpensive, and relatively easy to design  Accommodate small
 high stiffness across the joint results small relative torsional misalignments between two
displacements shafts
 higher torsional critical speeds for the system  Absorb shock and vibration

disadvantages disadvantages
 require precise colinear alignment of the mating shafts.  Difficult to design and expensive
 The shafts must be well supported by bearings located near
the coupling.
 The major disadvantage of installing a rigid coupling is that
when the flange bolts are tightened, any misalignment
between the two shafts has the potential to cause large
forces and bending moments that may overload the
coupling, the shafts, the bearings, or the support housing.
Rigid Couplings
• Sleeve/Muff Coupling
• Clamp or split muff coupling
• Flange Coupling

• Sleeve/Muff Coupling
• Split Muff Coupling
 • Flange Coupling

Power transmission

Key Bolt Key

Driving Shaft Left side Flange Right side Flange Driven Shaft
Flange Coupling
advantages
• high torque transmitting capacity
• easy to assemble and dismantle
• simple construction, easy to
design and manufacture
Disadvantages
• can not tolerate misalignment
between the axes of two shafts.
• unable to absorb shocks and
vibrations.
• requires more radial space.
 Flange Coupling
(i) dh = outside diameter of hub = 2d

(ii) lh = length of hub or effective length of key = 1.5 d

(iii) D = pitch circle diameter of bolts = 3d

(iv) t = thickness of flanges = 0.5 d

(v) t1 = thickness of protecting rim = 0.25 d

(vi) dr = diameter of spigot and recess = 1.5 d

(vii) D0 = outside diameter of flange = (4d + 2t1)

d is the shaft diameter.

The number of bolts (N) is also decided from the

shaft diameter in the following way:
N = 3 for shafts up to 40 mm diameter
N = 4 for shafts from 40 to 100 mm diameter
N = 6 for shafts from 100 to 180 mm diameter.
 Design of Flange Coupling:

(i) Shaft Diameter

Calculate the shaft diameter by using the following two
equations:
2 𝜋 𝑛 𝑀𝑡 n =speed of shaft in rpm
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
60 Mt = Torque (N-mm)

d = diameter of shaft (mm)

t = allowable shear stress (N/mm2)
Design of Flange Coupling:
(ii) Dimensions of Flanges
Calculate the dimensions of the flanges by the following empirical equations:

dh = 2d

lh = 1.5 d

D = 3d

t = 0.5 d

t1 = 0.25 d

dr = 1.5 d

D0 = (4d + 2t1)
Design of Flange Coupling:
(iii) Torsional shear stress in the hub
Check the torsional shear stress in hub. It should be lower than the allowable shear stress of the hub material for
safe design.
Design of Flange Coupling:
(iv) shear stress in the flange at the junction of hub
Check the shear stress in the junction of hub. It should be lower than the allowable shear stress of the flange material
for safe design.
Design of Flange Coupling:
(v) Diameter of bolt

Decide the number of bolts using the following guidelines:

N = 3 for d < 40 mm
N = 4 for 40 ≤ d < 100 mm
N = 6 for 100 ≤ d < 180 mm

The analysis of bolt design can be done by two

different ways, depending upon the clearance between
the bolt and the hole. In the first approach, the bolts
are fitted in reamed and ground holes. In this case,
there is no clearance and the bolts are finger tight.
Therefore, power is transmitted by means of shear
resistance of the bolts. In the second approach, the
bolts are fitted in large clearance holes. In this case,
bolts are tightened with a preload and power is
transmitted by means of friction between the two
flanges.
Case I: Bolts Fitted in Reamed and Ground Holes

Say, P = load acting on each bolt due to the transmission of Torque (N)
Then,

where,
Mt = torque transmitted by the coupling (N-mm)
D = pitch circle diameter of bolts (mm)
N = number of bolts.
It should be noted that the bolts are subjected to direct shear
stress due to the force P. The direct shear stress in the bolt is
given by,

t = shear stress in the bolt (N/mm2)

d1 = nominal diameter of the bolt
(mm)
Case II Bolts Fitted in Large Clearance Holes
When the bolts are fitted in large clearance holes, the above analysis is not applicable. In this case, the
bolts are sufficiently tightened with a preload and the torque is transmitted from one flange to the other by
means of friction between them.
For uniformly distributed pressure, the friction radius Rf is given by,

Ro = outer radius of the flange (Do /2) (mm)

Ri = radius of the recess (dr /2) (mm)
The friction force will be (m Pi N) and the torque is
given by,

Flanges have complex shape and the easiest method to

Pi = initial tension in each bolt (N)
make the flanges is casting. Flanges are usually made of
m = coefficient of friction between flanges grey cast iron of grade FG 200. The bolts, keys and shaft
are made of plain carbon steels on strength criterion.
Design of Flange Coupling:
(vi) Checking of compressive stress in bolt
Design of Flange Coupling:
(vii) Dimensions of key

Determine the standard cross-section of flat key from Data Book. The length of
the key in each shaft is lh. Therefore, l = lh

With these dimensions of the key, check the shear and compressive stresses in
the key
 Example: It is required to design a rigid type of flange coupling to connect two shafts. The
input shaft transmits 37.5 kW power at 180 rpm to the output shaft through the coupling. The
service factor for the application is 1.5, i.e., the design torque is 1.5 times of the rated torque.
The material of shaft is 40C8 (380 N/mm2). The material of keys and bolt is 30C8 (400
N/mm2). the factor of safety for shaft, keys and bolt is 2.5. Flange is made of grey cast iron
FG200 (200 N/mm2) and the factor of safety for flanges is 6. Design the coupling and specify
the dimensions of its components.
Permissible stresses (i) Shaft Diameter
(ii) Dimensions of Flanges
(iii) Torsional shear stress in the hub (iv) shear stress in the flange at the junction of hub
(v) Diameter of bolt (vi) Checking of compressive stress in bolt
(vii) Dimensions of key
Flexible Coupling:
Oldham Coupling (for lateral misalignment)

Universal Coupling (for angular misalignment)

Bushed Pin Flexible Coupling
Bushed Pin Flexible Coupling
(i) dh = outside diameter of hub = 2d

(ii) lh = length of hub or effective length of key

= 1.5 d

(iii) D = pitch circle diameter of pins = 3d to

4d

(iv) t = thickness of output flange = 0.5 d

(v) t1 = thickness of protective rim = 0.25 d

(vi) d1 = diameter of pin =

where N is the number of pins and d is the

shaft
diameter. Other dimensions of flanges, viz.,
outer diameter or thickness of the input flange
are calculated after deciding the dimensions of
the rubber bushes.
Design of Bushed Pin Flexible Coupling

(i) Shaft Diameter

Calculate the shaft diameter by using the following two
equations:
2 𝜋 𝑛 𝑀𝑡 n =speed of shaft in rpm
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
60 Mt = Torque (N-mm)

d = diameter of shaft (mm)

t = allowable shear stress (N/mm2)
Design of Bushed Pin Flexible Coupling
(ii) Dimensions of Flanges
Calculate the dimensions by the following empirical equations:
dh = outside diameter of hub = 2d

lh = length of hub or effective length of key =

1.5 d

D = pitch circle diameter of pins = 3d to 4d

t = thickness of output flange = 0.5 d

t1 = thickness of protective rim = 0.25 d

where N is the number of pins and d is the

shaft
diameter. Other dimensions of flanges, viz.,
outer diameter or thickness of the input flange
are calculated after deciding the dimensions of
the rubber bushes.
Design of Bushed Pin Flexible Coupling

(iii) Torsional shear stress in the hub

Check the torsional shear stress in hub. It should be lower than the allowable shear stress of the hub material for
safe design.

(iv) shear stress in the flange at the junction of hub

Check the shear stress in the junction of hub. It should
be lower than the allowable shear stress of the flange
material for safe design.
Design of Bushed Pin Flexible Coupling

(v) Diameter of Pins

The number of pins is usually 4 or 6. The diameter of the pins is calculated by the following empirical equation,

0 .5 𝑑
𝑑1 =
√𝑁
Design of Bushed Pin Flexible Coupling
(vi) Shear stress in Pins
Say, P = load acting on each rubber bush due to the transmission of
Torque (N)
Then,

where,
Mt = torque transmitted by the coupling (N-mm)
D = pitch circle diameter of bolts (mm)
N = number of bolts.

The pin is subjected to direct shear stress due to the force P.

The direct shear stress in the pin is given by,

According to Indian standard, the allowable shear stress for pins is 35

N/mm2.
Design of Bushed Pin Flexible Coupling
(vii) Torque in terms of permissible pressure in bush
………(a)
The projected area of the rubber bush is shown in Fig. The force P is equal
to the product of the projected area and the intensity of pressure.

………(b)

From (a) and (b)

………(c)

The permissible intensity of pressure between the rubber bush and the cast
iron flange is usually 1 N/mm2. The ratio of length to the outer diameter for
the rubber bush is usually assumed as 1. Then, From (c)
Design of Bushed Pin Flexible Coupling
(viii) Bending stress in Pins

It is assumed that the force P is uniformly

distributed over the bush length.
The maximum bending moment on the pin

𝑀 𝑏= 𝑃 ( 𝑙𝑏
2
+5 )
Then the bending stress is given by

𝜎𝑏 𝑀 𝑏
=
𝑦 𝐼 P

d1

lb 5 mm
Design of Bushed Pin Flexible Coupling

(ix) Dimensions of key

Determine the standard cross-section of flat key from Data Book. The length of
the key in each shaft is lh. Therefore, l = lh

With these dimensions of the key, check the shear and compressive stresses in
the key
Example: It is required to design a bushed pin type flexible to connect the output shaft of an
electric motor to the shaft of the centrifugal pump. The motor delivers 20 kW power at 720
rpm. The service factor for the application is 1.5, i.e., the design torque is 1.5 times of the
rated torque. The material of shaft is 40C8 (380 N/mm2). The material of keys and pin is 30C8
(400 N/mm2). It is assumed that the compressive yield strength is 150% of the tensile yield strength. The factor of
safety for shaft, keys and bolt is 2. Flange is made of grey cast iron FG200 (200 N/mm 2) and
the factor of safety for flanges is 6. Design the coupling and specify the dimensions of its
components.
In the initial stages, the diameter of the pin was calculated as 7
mm by using empirical formula. It was sufficient to keep the
maximum shear stress within limit. The shear stress induced in
the pin was 28.72 N/mm2 and the limiting stress was 35 N/mm2.
However, it is observed that a 7 mm diameter pin is not sufficient
to withstand bending stresses and the minimum diameter of the
pin should be 12 mm. Therefore, bending becomes the criterion
of design.
As shown in Fig., the diameter of the pin should be enlarged at
the section-XX in order to fix the pin in the driven flange. This
enlarged diameter is taken as (12 + 6) or 18 mm. Other
dimensions of the pin and the bush are shown in Fig. The
thickness of the brass lining is 2 mm. Therefore, the inner
diameter of the rubber bush is (18 + 4) or 22 mm. The minimum
thickness of the rubber bush is usually 10 mm. Therefore, the
outside diameter of the rubber bush is (22 + 20) or 42 mm. The
dimensions of the driving flange are shown in Fig.
 Machine Joints and Fastening Methods

Virtually all machines and structures, both large and small, comprise an assemblage of individual parts, separately
manufactured, and joined together to produce the complete article. The joints and connections between parts must be
given special attention by the designer because they always represent geometrical discontinuities that tend to disrupt
uniform force flow.
Selection of the type of joint to be used and the method of fastening depends upon many factors, including the loading
direction, magnitude, and spectrum characteristics, whether the load is symmetric or eccentric, whether materials to be
joined are the same or different, the sizes, thicknesses, geometries, and weights of the parts to be joined, the precision of
alignment and dimensional tolerances required, whether the joint is to be permanent or detachable, whether the joint must
be pressure sealed, and the cost of assembly.

Mechanical Joints

Permanent Joints Temporary/Separable Joints

(ex: Riveted, (Nut and bolt joints, screwed
welded Joints) joints etc.)
Fig. 1 Riveted Joint Fig. 2 Welded Joint

Fig. 3 Nut and bolt joint Fig. 4 Screwed Joint

 Riveted Joints

For permanent joints, rivets have been widely used to secure both structural joints, for which strength is an
important design consideration, and lower-performance industrial joints, for which strength requirements are
modest but production costs and assembly time are key factors
Traditionally, structural rivets have been used in civil engineering structures such as buildings, bridges, and ships,
as well as many mechanical engineering applications including pressure vessels, automotive applications, and
aircraft structures. Although the development of modern welding equipment and techniques has reduced the
importance of riveting for many of these uses, it remains important in high-performance applications such as
stressed-skin aircraft structures.
For lower-performance industrial joints, such as used in the assembly of appliances, electronic devices, business
machines, furniture, and other similar applications, the potentially lower costs and higher assembly speeds often
make riveting a wise choice.

Advantages
• Rivets are cost-effective
• do not change the material properties of the members fastened
• do not warp the joined parts
• serve as fatigue crack stoppers.
• do not tend to shake loose
• can be assembled blind (fully installed from one side)
• can be used to join dissimilar materials in various thicknesses
• simple and safe to install.
• Leakproof joint is possible

Disadvantages
• Overall cost is more
• Extra weight of due to rivet
• Stress concentration due to hole in plate
 Method of Riveting

Riveting methods are classified on the basis of temperature of the shank,

• hot riveting
• cold riveting
(i) In hot riveting, the end of the rivet shank is heated till it becomes bright red and then the blows are applied by a hammer.
In cold riveting, there is no such heating.
(ii) In hot riveting, when the rivet cools, the reduction in the length of the shank is prevented by the heads resting against
the connected members. Therefore, the shank portion of the rivet is subjected to tensile stress while the connected parts are
compressed. This is illustrated in Fig. The compression of the connected parts causes friction, which resists sliding of one
part with respect to another. Cold riveting does not hold the connecting elements together with as great a force as is
developed in hot riveting. Therefore, hot riveting is recommended for fluid tight joints in pressure vessels.
(iii) Cold riveting is applicable for steel rivets up to 10 mm diameter and rivets made of non-ferrous metals like brass,
copper and aluminum alloys. Hot riveting is carried out for steel rivets with diameters more than 10 mm.
Rivet Materials

Rivets may be made of virtually any ductile material with acceptable shear strength for the application.
However, rivets used in most of the applications are made of mild steel. There are two varieties of steel rivet
bars—hot rolled steel rivet bar and high-tensile steel rivet bar.
Rivets used in corrosive atmosphere are made of stainless steel.
Rivets used for connecting non-ferrous metals and soft materials are made of copper, brass, bronze and aluminum
alloys.
Type of Rivet Heads
• The snap heads are usually employed
for structural work and machine
riveting.
• The countersunk heads are mainly
used for ship building where flush
surfaces are necessary.
• The pan heads have maximum
strength, but these are difficult to
shape.
Type of Rivets and Riveting
 Type of Riveting and Important terms used in riveted joints

Lap Joint (i) Pitch (p) The pitch of the rivet is defined as the
distance between the centre of one rivet to the
centre of the adjacent rivet in the same row.
Usually,
p = 3d
where d is shank diameter of the rivet.
(ii) Margin (m) The margin is the distance between
the edge of the plate to the centreline of rivets in the
nearest row. Usually,
m = 1.5d
(iii) Transverse Pitch (pt ) Transverse pitch, also
called back pitch or row pitch, is the distance
between two consecutive rows of rivets in the same
plate. Usually,
pt = 0.8p (for chain riveting)
= 0.6p (for zig-zag riveting)
(iv) Diagonal Pitch (pd ) Diagonal pitch is the
(a) Single riveted chain Lap joint; (b) Double riveted chain Lap joint; distance between the centre of one rivet to the
(c) Double riveted zig-zag Lap joint centre of the adjacent rivet located in the adjacent
row.
 Type of Riveting and Important terms used in riveted joints

Butt Joint
 Type of Riveting and Important terms used in riveted joints

Diamond/Lozenge Joint
Caulking and Fullering
In applications like pressure vessels and boilers, the riveted joint should
be leakproof and fluid tight. Caulking and fullering processes are used to
obtain such leakproof riveted joints.
The caulking process is applied to the edges of plates in a lap joint and
the edges of strap plate in a butt joint. These edges are first beveled to
approximately 70° to 75° and the caulking tool is hammered on the edge
as shown in Fig. (a). The caulking is done either by hand hammer or by
the use of pneumatic or hydraulic hammer. The head of the rivet is also
hammered down with the caulking tool. The blows of caulking tool
closes the surface asperities and cracks on the contacting surfaces
between two plates and also between the rivet and the plates, resulting in
leakproof joint. Caulking cannot be applied to plates with less than 6 mm
thickness.
Fullering, as shown in Fig.(b), is similar to the caulking
process except for the shape of the tool.
Critical Points and Stress Analysis

Potential critical sections may be identified as

1. Shearing of rivet cross section
2. Tensile failure of net plate cross section between rivets
3. Compressive bearing failure between rivet and plate
4. Edge/Margin shear-out at rivet hole
5. Edge/Margin tearing at rivet hole

However, in analysis of riveted joints, mainly three types of failure (1, 2 and
3) are considered.
Strength Equation

(i) Shear Strength of Rivet

The shear failure in the rivet of a single-riveted lap joint is
illustrated in Fig (a). In this case, the rivet is in single shear.
𝜋 2
𝑃𝑠= 𝑑 𝜏
4

In case of double or triple riveted lap joints and single or

double shear, there are number of rivets and the above
equation is modified and written in the following way:
𝜋 2
𝑃𝑠= 𝑑 𝜏 𝑛𝑥
4
n = no. of rivets per pitch
length x = 1 for single shear
n = 1 for single riveted x = 2 for double shear
n = 2 for double riveted (Fig. b)
Strength Equation

(ii) Tensile Strength of Plates between Rivet

w
Total tensile strength of plate
¿ ( 𝑤 −𝑚𝑑 ) 𝑡 𝜎 𝑡

m = number of total rivets

If the joint is continuous as in case of boilers, the strength is calculated per pitch length. But if the joint is small,
the strength is calculated for the whole length of the plate
Strength Equation

(iii) Crushing/Compressive Strength of Plate

Efficiency of joints

The efficiency of the riveted joint is defined as the ratio of the strength of riveted joint to the strength of unriveted
solid plate.
The strength of the riveted joint is the lowest value of Ps, Pt and Pc.
The strength of solid plate of width, equal to the pitch p and thickness t, subjected to tensile stress st is given by,

Therefore, the efficiency is given by,

𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 𝑠 , 𝑃 𝑡 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 𝑐
𝜂=
𝑃
 Problem: Two plates, each 15 mm thick and carrying an axial load of 175 kN, are connected by means of double-
strap butt joint as shown in Fig. Assume that rivets in double shear are 1.875 times stronger than in single shear. The
permissible stresses for rivets and plates in tension, shear and compression are 80, 60 and 120 N/mm 2 respectively.
Calculate:
(i) diameter of the rivets; and (ii) width of the plate.
Assuming the above values, calculate:
(iii) strength of the joint if failure is to occur along the section-AA;
(iv) strength of the joint if failure is to occur along the section-BB;
(v) strength of the joint if failure is to occur along the section-CC;
(vi) strength of the joint if the failure is to occur due to shearing of rivets;
(vii) strength of the joint if the failure is to occur due to crushing of rivets;
(viii) strength of solid plate; and
(ix) efficiency of the joint.
Solution:
Given Data:

P = 175 kN; t = 15 mm;

st = 80 N/mm2; t = 60 N/mm2; sc =120 N/mm2
 P = 175 kN; t = 15 mm;
st = 80 N/mm2; t = 60 N/mm2; sc =120 N/mm2
(i) diameter of the rivets
Considering the total shear strength equals to the applied load,

shear strength of one rivet = = 35.342 kN

Crushing strength of one rivet =

(ii) width of the plate

To determine width, tensile strength will be considered. It is obvious that the tensile strength of section AA and
section BB is equal and less than the tensile strength of section CC.
Case I: section AA or BB Case II: section CC

For Case II, strength of section AA or BB =

(iii) strength of the joint if failure is to occur along the section-AA

Tensile failure of section AA and shear failure of section BB and CC.

Then, Strength along section AA

(iv) strength of the joint if failure is to occur along the section-BB;

Tensile failure of section BB and shear failure of section CC.

Then, Strength along section BB
(v) strength of the joint if failure is to occur along the section-CC

Tensile failure of section CC

Then, Strength along section CC

(vi) strength of the joint if the failure is to occur due to shearing of rivets

Shear failure of all rivets together.

Then, Strength against shear

(vii) strength of the joint if the failure is to occur due to crushing of rivets

Crushing failure of all rivets together

Crushing strength of all rivets =
(iii) strength of the joint if failure is to occur along the section-AA = 268.03 kN
(iv) strength of the joint if failure is to occur along the section-BB = 197.34 kN
(v) strength of the joint if failure is to occur along the section-CC = 186 kN
(vi) strength of the joint if the failure is to occur due to shearing of rivets = 176.71 kN
(vii) strength of the joint if the failure is to occur due to crushing of rivets = 180 kN

(viii) strength of solid plate

210 kN

(ix) efficiency of the joint

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 176 .71

𝜂= = =0 . 8415 𝑜𝑟 84 . 15 %
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 210
Eccentrically loaded riveted joint
Many times, a group of rivets is employed in structural joints. When the line of action of external force does not pass
through the center of gravity of these rivets, the joint is called an eccentrically loaded joint as shown in Fig.

Determination of Centre of Gravity:

The coordinates (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), (x4, y4) indicate the position of
rivet-centres with respect to the origin. G is the centre of gravity of the
group of rivets. The co-ordinates (x, y) indicate the location of the centre
of gravity.
The eccentric force can be considered as equivalent to an
imaginary force P at the centre of gravity and a moment (P x e)
about the same point. This is illustrated in Fig.
The imaginary force P at the centre of gravity results in primary
shear forces P′1 P′2 ,..., etc., given by the following equation,

′ ′ ′ ′ 𝑃
𝑃 1= 𝑃 2 = 𝑃 3= 𝑃 4=
4

The moment (P x e) about the centre of gravity results in

secondary shear forces P"1, P"2, ..., etc. If r1, r2, ..., etc., are the
radial distances of the rivet centres from the centre of gravity,
then
′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
𝑃 ×𝑒= 𝑃 1 𝑟 1 + 𝑃 2 𝑟 2+ 𝑃 3 𝑟 3 + 𝑃 4 𝑟 4

It is assumed that the secondary shear force at any rivet is

proportional to its distance from the centre of gravity.
′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
𝑃 1 =𝐶 𝑟 1 ; 𝑃 2 = 𝐶 𝑟 2 ; 𝑃 3 =𝐶 𝑟 3 ; 𝑃 4 = 𝐶 𝑟 4
 ′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
𝑃 ×𝑒= 𝑃 1 𝑟 1 + 𝑃 2 𝑟 2+ 𝑃 3 𝑟 3 + 𝑃 4 𝑟 4

′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
𝑃 1 =𝐶 𝑟 1 ; 𝑃 2 = 𝐶 𝑟 2 ; 𝑃 3 =𝐶 𝑟 3 ; 𝑃 4 = 𝐶 𝑟 4

The primary and secondary shear forces are added by vector

addition method to get the resultant shear forces P1, P2, P3, and
P4 .
Example: A bracket is attached to a steel channel by means of nine identical rivets as shown in Fig. Determine the
diameter of rivets, if the permissible shear stress is 60 N/mm 2.
Riveted Joint in Boiler

Longitudinal Butt Joint Circumferential Lap Joint

Stresses in thin cylindrical shell

Circumferential stress/Hoop stress:

Pi

t
t = thickness of cylinder wall (mm); Pi = internal pressure (N/mm2); Di = inner diameter of the cylinder (mm);
st = permissible tensile stress for the cylinder material (N/mm2)
The plate of the cylinder wall is to be drilled for the rivets. The weaker section passing through the rivet holes will not
be as strong as the original solid plate. The ratio of strength of the joint to the strength of the original solid plate is
expressed by the efficiency of the joint and denoted by h. Modifying the above equation to account for this weakening
effect, 𝑃 𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡= h = efficiency of the riveted joint
2 𝜎𝑡 𝜂
Longitudinal stress:
Design of Longitudinal Butt Joint of Boiler
According to Indian boiler regulation, the following procedure should be adopted for the design.
(i) Thickness of Boiler Shell
𝑃 𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡=
2 𝜎𝑡 𝜂
The wall of the boiler shell is subjected to thinning due to corrosion, which reduces the useful life of the shell.
Provision has to be made by suitable increase in the wall thickness to compensate for the thinning due to corrosion.
Corrosion allowance (CA) is additional metal thickness over and above that required to withstand internal
pressure. A minimum corrosion allowance of 1.5 to 2 mm thickness is recommended unless a protective lining is
employed. Introducing corrosion allowance in the above Equation,

𝑃 𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡= +CA
2 𝜎𝑡 𝜂
 𝑃 𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡= +CA
2 𝜎𝑡 𝜂
The Permissible tensile stress
st = sut / fs

There are two popular grades of steel used for boiler shells and boiler rivets. They are designated as Grade-St 37
BR and Grade- St 42 BR. Their ultimate tensile strengths are as follows:
(ii) Diameter of Rivet

a.) When the thickness of plate is more than 8 mm, the rivet diameter is calculated by following Unwin’s formula,

𝑑=6 √ 𝑡

b.) When the thickness of the plate is less than 8 mm, the diameter of rivet is obtained by equating shear
resistance of rivets to crushing resistance.
c.) In no case, the diameter of the rivet should be less than the plate thickness.
The diameter of the rivet hole is slightly more than the rivet diameter. The standard sizes of a boiler rivet and
corresponding rivet holes are given in the following Table. Alternatively, the diameter of the rivet hole can be obtained
by following approximate relationship:
d' = d + (1 to 2 mm)
where, d' = diameter of rivet hole

IS 1928 – 1961 (Reaffirmed 1996)

 (iii) Pitch of Rivet
As shown in Fig., the pitch of the rivets in the outer row is
maximum. The pitch of the rivets in the middle and inner rows
is one half of the pitch in outer row, that is, (p/2).
The pitch of the rivets in the outer row is obtained by equating
the shear strength of the rivets to the tensile strength of the
plate.

n1 = number of rivets subjected to single shear per pitch length

n2 = number of rivets subjected to double shear per pitch length

According to Indian Boiler Regulations,

(a) The pitch of the rivets should not be less than (2d) to enable the
forming of the rivet head,
pmin. = 2d
(b) In order to provide leakproof joint, the maximum pitch is given by,
pmax. = Ct + 41.28

If the pitch as obtained by equating shear strength to the tensile strength

is more than pmax., then the value pmax. is taken.
(iv) Transverse Pitch / distance between the rows of rivets (pt )
The transverse pitch or distance between the rows of rivets is
specified according to Clause 184 of the Indian Boiler Regulations.
The provisions of this clause are as follows:

Case I In a lap or butt joint, in which there are more than one row of
rivets and in which there is an equal number of rivets in each row, the
minimum distance between the rows of rivets is given by,
pt = 0.33p + 0.67d (For zigzag riveting)
pt = 2d (For chain riveting)

Case II In joints in which the number of rivets in the outer row is one-
half of the number of rivets in each of the inner rows and in which the
inner rows are zigzag riveted,
the minimum distance between the outer row the and next row is given by,
pt = 0.2p + 1.15d
the minimum distance between the rows in which there are full number of
rivets is given by,
pt = 0.165p + 0.67d

Case III In joints in which the number of rivets in the outer row is one-half of the number of rivets in each of the inner rows and in
which the inner rows are Chain riveted,
the minimum distance between the outer row the and next row is given by, pt = 0.33p + 0.67d pt = 2d , whichever is greater.
the minimum distance between the rows in which there are full number of rivets should not be less than 2d.
 (v) Thickness of butt Straps

The thickness of straps for a riveted joint is

calculated according to Clause 182 of Indian
Boiler Regulations. The provisions of this
clause are as follows:
Case I When the straps are of unequal width and in
which every alternate rivet in the outer row is omitted,
t1 = 0.75t (for wide strap on the inside)
t1 = 0.625t (for narrow strap on the outside)
Case II When the straps are of equal width and in
which every alternate rivet in outer row is omitted,

𝑡 1 =0 . 625 𝑡 ( 𝑝−𝑑
𝑝 −2 𝑑 )
The thickness of the butt strap, in no case, shall be less than 10 mm.

(vi) Margin (m)

The distance between the centre of the rivet hole from the edge of the plate is called margin. The minimum
margin is given by,
m = 1.5d
Example: A cylindrical pressure vessel with a 1.5 m inside diameter is subjected to internal steam pressure of 1.5 MPa. It
is made from steel plate by triple-riveted double-strap longitudinal butt joint with equal straps. The pitch of the rivets in
the outer row is twice of the pitch of the rivets in the inner rows. The rivets are arranged in a zigzag pattern. The
efficiency of the riveted joint should be at least 80%. The permissible stresses for the plate and rivets in tension, shear
and compression are 80, 60 and 120 N/mm2 respectively. Assume that the rivet in double shear is 1.875 times stronger
than in single shear. Design the joint and calculate:
(i) thickness of the plate; (ii) diameter of rivets; (iii) pitch of rivets; (iv) distance between the rows of rivets;
(v) margin; (vi) thickness of the straps; and (vii) efficiency of the joint.
Draw a neat sketch of the riveted joint showing calculated values of dimensions.
Substituting all values in the above equation,

p = 228.29 or 230 mm
Design of Circumferential Lap Joint of Boiler

The circumferential lap joint is used to connect different cylindrical rings together and form the boiler shell. In this
case, one ring is kept overlapping over another ring and the two rings are fastened by circumferential riveted joint.
This type of joint is also used to connect the end cover to the cylindrical shell.

The thickness of boiler shell and the diameter of rivet will be designed in the
same procedure as in case of Longitudinal Butt Joint

(iii) Number of Rivets

As shown in Fig., the rivets are subjected to single shear.
The total shear resistance = External force acting on the joint

n = total no. of rivets

(iv) Pitch of Rivets
The pitch of the rivets p1 for a circumferential joint is shown in Fig. It is obtained by
assuming the efficiency of circumferential lap joint.

h1 = efficiency of circumferential joint

p1 = pitch of circumferential joint (mm)

The guidelines for the values of efficiency are as follows:

(a) When there are number of circumferential joints in the shell, the efficiency of the intermediate circumferential
seams is taken as 62%.
(b) The efficiency of the end circumferential joint is assumed to be 50% of that of the longitudinal joint, but in no case
less than 42%.
Therefore,
For intermediate joints, h1 = 0.62
For end joints, h1 = 0.5h or 0.42 (whichever is less)
Knowing efficiency of the joint and rivet diameter, the pitch of the rivets are calculated from the above equation
(v) Number of Rows

Referring to Fig., the number of rivets in one row is given by,

After determining the number of rows, the type of joint such as single-riveted lap joint or double riveted lap joint is
decided. The pitch is again readjusted. The pitch p1 obtained by the above procedure has minimum and maximum
limits like the pitch of longitudinal joint.
pmin. = 2d
pmax. = Ct + 41.28
The minimum limit is set from considerations of manufacturing the rivet head, while maximum limit from
considerations of obtaining leakproof joint.
(vi) Transverse Pitch
Figure shows a double riveted circumferential lap joint for a
cylindrical pressure vessel. The transverse pitch (pt) is the
distance between two rows of rivets. The overlap of the plate,
denoted by a, is given by,
a = pt + 2m
where,
m = margin
The number of rivets in each row is equal.

For zig-zag riveting, pt = 0.33p + 0.67d

For chain riveting, pt = 2d
The margin m is given by, m = 1.5d
 Welded Joints
Welding can be defined as a process of joining metallic parts by heating to a suitable temperature with or without the
application of pressure. Welding is an economical and efficient method for obtaining a permanent joint of metallic parts.
There are two distinct applications of welded joints—a welded joint can be used as a substitute for a riveted joint and a
welded structure as an alternative method for casting or forging.

Weldments (welded assemblies) are used in many applications such as machine frames, machine parts, building
structures, bridges, ships, vehicles, construction equipment, and many other systems.
 Welded Joints

Advantages Disadvantages

• Smooth and pleasant appearance • Poor ability to damp vibration

• High efficiency • Thermal distortion of parts
• Less expensive • Skilled welder requirement to get good quality
• Lighter in weight • Costly for inspection of joint
• Economical
• Leakproof joints
• Easy alteration and addition
• Less stress concentration
 Welding Processes
Most industrial welding processes involve local fusion of the parts to be joined, at their common interfaces, to produce a
weldment. Heat is supplied by a controlled electric arc passing from an electrode to the workpiece, or by use of an
oxyfuel gas flame. Typically, an inert gas or a flux is used to shield the weld zone from the atmosphere during the
welding process, and a filler metal is introduced so that sound, uncontaminated welds result.
Welding Processes

Welding can be broadly classified in two groups

1) Liquid state (fusion) welding where heat is added to the base metals until they melt. Added metal (filler material) may
also be supplied. Upon cooling strong joint is formed. Depending upon the method of heat addition this process can be
further subdivided, namely
 Electrical heating: Arc welding
Resistance welding
Induction welding
 Chemical welding: Gas welding
Thermit welding
 Laser welding
 Electron beam welding
2) Solid state welding: Here mechanical force is applied until materials deform to plastic state. Bonds are then
formed through molecular interaction. Solid state welding may be of various kinds, namely,
 Cold welding
 Diffusion welding
 Hot forging

Descriptions of the individual welding processes are to be found in any standard textbook on welding.
Strength of welded joints:
Adequate care must be taken to enhance strength of the welded joint. It is seen that strength of a welded joint gets
affected mainly by the following factors.
(i) Crack initiation: it is possible that cracks form while cooling a melted metal.
(ii) Residual stresses: due to inhomogeneous heating of the base metals, residual stresses may exist upon
cooling.
(iii) Metallurgical transformation: in heat affected zone (HAZ) metallurgical properties may change leading
to weakening of the joint. Aluminum strength is reduced up to 50% in the HAZ
(iv) Defects: of various kinds like incomplete penetration, porosity, slag inclusion which affect the strength of
a welded joint.
(v) Stress concentration: abrupt change in the geometry after welding may introduce stress concentration in
the structure.
Types of Welded Joint:
There are mainly two types of welded joint.
 Fillet or Lap Joint
 Butt Joint
 Fillet or Lap Joint
A fillet joint, also called a lap joint, is a joint between two overlapping plates or components.
 Transverse Fillet joint

 Parallel Fillet Joint

 Butt Joint

A butt joint can be defined as a joint between two components lying approximately in the same plane. A butt joint
connects the ends of the two plates.
 Square butt joint
 Single V-butt joint, double V-butt joint
 Single U-butt joint, double U-butt joint
 Single J-butt joint, double J-butt joint
 Single bevel-butt joint, double bevel butt joint
 Other types of welded joint

 Corner joint
 Edge or seal joint
 T-joint
Welding Symbol:
 Strength of Butt Welds

The average normal stress for either tensile or compression loading is given by

The average shear stress for shear loading is given by

𝑃
𝜏=
ℎ𝑙 P P P
P

h = throat of the butt weld (mm)

l = length of the weld (mm)

Here, h = t (thickness of the plate)

Strength of Parallel Fillet Welds
There are two terms related to the dimensions of the fillet weld,
viz., leg h and throat t. The size of the weld is specified by the
leg length. The length of each of the two equal sides is called a
leg. As a rule, the leg length h is equal to the plate thickness.
The throat is the minimum cross-section of the weld located at
45° to the leg dimension. Therefore,

Failure of the fillet weld occurs due to shear along the minimum cross-section at the throat. It will be proved at a later
stage that for parallel fillet weld, the inclination of the plane where maximum shear stress is induced, is 45° to the leg
dimension. The shear failure of the weld is shown in Fig. (b). The cross-sectional area at the throat is (tl) or (0.707 hl).
The shear stress in the fillet weld is given by,
𝑃
𝜏= ⇒ 𝑃=0 . 707 ℎ𝑙 𝜏
0 . 707 ℎ𝑙

For double parallel Fillet weld

𝑃
𝜏= ⇒ 𝑃=1 . 414 ℎ𝑙 𝜏
2( 0 . 707 ℎ𝑙)
Strength of Transverse Fillet Welds

The nature of stresses in the cross-section of the

transverse fillet weld is complex. The weld is
subjected to normal stress as well as shear stress.

To simplify the design, either the tensile stress or shear

stress is considered at the minimal cross section
located at 45° angle.

Then, either

or For single transverse fillet

Then, either

or For double transverse fillet

However, it is proved later that the maximum shear stress is at 67.5° to the leg dimension.
 Example: A plate, 75 mm wide and 10 mm thick, is joined with another steel plate by means
of single transverse and double parallel fillet welds, as shown in Fig. The joint is subjected
to a maximum tensile force of 55 kN. The permissible tensile and shear stresses in the weld
material are 70 and 50 N/mm2 respectively. Determine the required length of each parallel
fillet weld.
Solution
Given P = 55 kN, t = 50 N/mm2, st = 70 N/mm2, h = 10 mm
Step I Strength of transverse and parallel fillet welds Step I Strength of transverse and parallel fillet welds
The strength of the single transverse fillet weld is denoted The strength of the single transverse fillet weld is denoted
by P1. by P1.

The strength of the double parallel fillet weld is denoted The strength of the double parallel fillet weld is denoted
by P2. by P2.

Step II Length of parallel fillet weld Step II Length of parallel fillet weld
The total strength of the joint should be 55 kN. The total strength of the joint should be 55 kN.
So, So,

Adding 15 mm for starting and stopping of the weld run, Adding 15 mm for starting and stopping of the weld run,
the length of the weld is given by, the length of the weld is given by,
l = 25.29 + 15 = 40.29 or 45 mm l = 40.29 + 15 = 55.29 or 60 mm
Maximum shear strength in transverse fillet welds

P is replaced by F
At angle θ the forces on each weldment consist of a normal force Fn
and a shear force Fs. Summing forces in the x and y directions gives

Using the law of sines for the triangle in Fig. yields

Solving for the throat thickness t gives

The nominal stresses at the angle θ in the weldment, τ and σ, are

Maximum shear strength in transverse fillet welds

For maximum shear strength,

1. 207 𝐹 1. 207 𝑃
𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = ⇒ 𝑃=0 . 8285 ℎ𝑙 𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥
ℎ𝑙 ℎ𝑙

The corresponding tensile stress

0 .5 𝐹 0 . 5 𝑃
𝜎 𝑡= = ⇒ 𝑃=2 ℎ𝑙 𝜎 𝑡
ℎ𝑙 ℎ𝑙
 Example: A plate, 75 mm wide and 10 mm thick, is joined with another steel plate by means
of single transverse and double parallel fillet welds, as shown in Fig. The joint is subjected
to a maximum tensile force of 55 kN. The permissible tensile and shear stresses in the weld
material are 70 and 50 N/mm2 respectively. Determine the required length of each parallel
fillet weld.
Solution
Given P = 55 kN, t = 50 N/mm2, st = 70 N/mm2, h = 10 mm

Step I Strength of transverse and parallel fillet welds

The strength of the single transverse fillet weld is denoted
by P1.

The strength of the double parallel fillet weld is denoted

by P2.

Step II Length of parallel fillet weld

The total strength of the joint should be 55 kN.
So,

Adding 15 mm for starting and stopping of the weld run,

the length of the weld is given by,
l = 33.85 + 15 = 48.85 or 50 mm
Maximum shear strength in transverse fillet welds (use of distortion energy theory)

For maximum value of von Mises stress,

′ 2 .16 𝐹 2 .16 𝑃
𝜎= = ⇒ 𝑃=0 . 463 ℎ𝑙 𝜎 ′
ℎ𝑙 ℎ𝑙
 Example: A plate, 75 mm wide and 10 mm thick, is joined with another steel plate by means
of single transverse and double parallel fillet welds, as shown in Fig. The joint is subjected
to a maximum tensile force of 55 kN. The permissible tensile and shear stresses in the weld
material are 70 and 50 N/mm2 respectively. Determine the required length of each parallel
fillet weld.
Solution
Given P = 55 kN, t = 50 N/mm2, st = 70 N/mm2, h = 10 mm

Step I Strength of transverse and parallel fillet welds

The strength of the single transverse fillet weld is denoted
by P1.

The strength of the double parallel fillet weld is denoted

by P2.

Step II Length of parallel fillet weld

The total strength of the joint should be 55 kN.
So,
24307.5

Adding 15 mm for starting and stopping of the weld run,

the length of the weld is given by,
l = 43.41 + 15 = 58.41 or 60 mm
Design of circular fillet weld subjected to torsion:
If the shaft is subjected to a torque, shear stress develops in the weld in a similar
way as in parallel fillet joint. Assuming that the weld thickness is very small
compared to the diameter of the shaft, the maximum shear stress occurs in the
throat area. Thus, for a given torque the maximum shear stress in the weld is
Example A circular shaft, 50 mm in diameter, is welded to the support by means of circumferential fillet weld as shown in
Fig. It is subjected to torsional moment of 1500 N-m. Determine the size of the weld, if the permissible shear stress in the
weld is limited to 56 N/mm2.

Solution
Given d = 50 mm, T = 1500 N-m, t = 56 N/mm2

2𝑇
𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
⇒ 𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 =6 .8 𝑚𝑚
𝜋 𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑑

Assuming equal base and height, Size of welds:

𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡
ℎ= = 9. 6 ≈ 10 𝑚𝑚
0 . 707
Eccentric Load in the plane of weld:

The force P acting through the centre of gravity causes

direct shear stress in the welds. It is called the primary
shear stress.

The couple M causes torsional shear stresses in the

throat area of welds. They are called secondary shear
stresses and given by

A = total throat area of all welds.

The secondary shear stress at any point in the weld is
r = distance of a point in the weld from G
proportional to its distance from the centre of gravity.
J = polar moment of inertia of all welds about G
Obviously, it is maximum at the farthest point such as A.
 Figure shows two welds in a group. The rectangles
represent the throat areas of the welds. Weld 1 has a
throat thickness t1 = 0.707h1, and weld 2 has a throat
thickness t2 = 0.707h2. Note that h1 and h2 are the
respective weld sizes. The throat area of
both welds together is
A = A1 + A2 = t 1 d + t 2 b
This is the area that is to be used in the equation of
primary shear stress.
The second moment of area about the axis through G1 (here
x-axis) is

Similarly, the second moment of area about an axis through G1

parallel to the y axis is

In a similar manner, the second polar moment of

area of weld 2 about its centroid (G2) is
Thus the second polar moment of area of weld 1
about its own centroid (G1) is
The centroid G of the weld group is
located at

Using Fig. again, we see that the distances r1 and r2 from G1 and
G2 to G, respectively, are

Now, using the parallel-axis theorem, we find the second polar

moment of area of the weld group about the centroid (G) to be

This is the quantity to be used in secondary shear stress equation.

 Example A welded connection, as shown in Fig., is subjected to an eccentric force of 60 kN in the plane of the welds.
Determine the size of the welds, if the permissible shear stress for the weld is 100 N/mm 2. Assume static conditions.

Solution
Given P = 60 kN t = 100 N/mm2
Step I Primary shear stress
There are two horizontal welds and one vertical weld.
Considering the same throat thickness (t mm) for all weld, the y
total throat area is given by

The primary shear stress in the weld is given by,

𝑃 60000 300 2
𝜏 1= = = 𝑁 / 𝑚𝑚
𝐴 200 𝑡 𝑡 3

2
x
Step II Secondary shear stress

The centre of gravity of three weld is given by

The second polar moment of areas of weld 1

and weld 2 about its own centroids (G1 and
G2) , respectively are 1
50 𝑡 3 𝑡 503
𝐽 𝐺 1= 𝐽 𝐺 2=𝐼 𝑥 + 𝐼 𝑦 = +
12 12

Similarly, the second polar moment of area of

weld 3 about its own centroid (G3 ) is
3 3
𝑡 100 100 𝑡 3
𝐽 𝐺 3= +
12 12
2
Using Fig. again, we see that the distances r1 and r2 from G1 and x
G2 to G, respectively, are
 3 3
50 𝑡 𝑡 50
𝐽 𝐺 1= 𝐽 𝐺 2=𝐼 𝑥 + 𝐼 𝑦 = +
12 12 y
3 3
𝑡 100 100 𝑡
𝐽 𝐺 3= +
12 12

Using Fig. again, we see that the distances r1 , r2 and r1 from 1

G1 , G2 and G3 to G, respectively, are

𝑟 1 =𝑟 2= 𝐺1 𝐺= 𝐺2 𝐺= √ ( 25 −12 .5 ) + ( 50 ) = 51. 54
2 2

𝑟 3 =𝐺 3 𝐺=12 . 5
3
Now, using the parallel-axis theorem, we find the second polar
moment of area of the weld group about the centroid (G) to be 2
x
𝐽 =( 𝐽 𝐺 1 + 𝐴 1 𝑟 21 ) + ( 𝐽 𝐺 2+ 𝐴2 𝑟 22 ) + ( 𝐽 𝐺 3 + 𝐴 3 𝑟 23 )

𝐽 =2 ( 𝐽 𝐺 1 + 𝐴 1 𝑟 12 ) + ( 𝐽 𝐺 3 + 𝐴3 𝑟 23 )

𝐴 1= 𝐴 2=50 𝑡 , 𝐴 3 =100 𝑡
As seen in Fig., A is the farthest point from the centre of
gravity G and its distance r is given by,

y
The secondary shear stress at the point A is given
by,
𝑀𝑟 70312500
𝜏 2= =
𝐽 3
16 . 67 𝑡 +385428 .83 𝑡 1

2
x
 𝑃 60000 300 2
𝜏 1= = = 𝑁 / 𝑚𝑚
𝐴 200 𝑡 𝑡

𝑀𝑟 70312500 70312500 1824 . 27

𝜏 2= = ≈ ≈
𝐽 16 . 67 𝑡 +385428 .83 𝑡 385428 . 83 𝑡
3
𝑡

The resultant shear stress at the point A is given

by, y
2018 . 58
𝜏= √ ( 𝜏 1+ 𝜏 2 sin 𝜙 ) + ( 𝜏 2 cos 𝜙 ) =
2 2
𝑡

Step IV Size of weld

1
The permissible shear stress for the weld material is 100
N/mm2. Therefore,
2018 .58
100= ⇒ 𝑡 =20 . 19 𝑚𝑚
𝑡
The weld size
3
𝑡
ℎ= =28 . 56 𝑚𝑚 2
0 . 707
x
Welded Joint subjected to Fatigue Loading

In fatigue, the Gerber criterion is best; however, you will find that the Goodman criterion is in common use. For the
surface factor, an as-forged surface should always be assumed for weldments unless a superior finish is specified and
obtained.
Example Two plates, 25 mm thick, are welded together by means of a reinforced butt weld and subjected to a completely
reversed axial load of ± 100 kN as shown in Fig. The throat of the weld is 25 mm. The ultimate tensile strength of the weld
metal is 450 N/mm2. The surface finish of the weld is equivalent to that of the forged component and the reliability is 90%.
Determine the length of the weld if the factor of safety is 2.
 Spring
Springs may be broadly defined as structures or devices that exhibit elastic deformation when
loaded, and recover their initial configuration when the load is removed.

Applications of springs

 To absorb shocks and vibrations

e.g., vehicle suspension springs, railway buffer springs,
buffer springs in elevators and vibration mounts for
machinery.

 To store energy
e.g., springs used in clocks, toys, movie-cameras, circuit
breakers and starters.

 To measure force
e.g., springs used in weighing balances and scales.

 To apply force and control motion.

e.g., cam and follower mechanism
 Types of Springs
1. Helical-coil springs

Helical-coil springs are probably more widely used than any other type. As illustrated in Figure, helical-coil springs may
be used to support compressive loads (pushing), tensile loads (pulling), or torsional moments (twisting).
 Types of Springs

2. Spring Washer
 Types of Springs

3. Beam Spring

Beam springs (leaf springs) of various types are illustrated in Figure. Leaf springs may be either single or multileaf
cantilever beams subjected to transverse end loads, as shown in Figures (a) and (b), or single or multileaf simply
supported beams subjected to center loads, as shown in Figures (c) and (d).
1. Helical-coil springs

The helical springs are sometimes classified as closely-coiled helical spring and open-coiled helical spring. The
difference between them is as follows:
(i) A helical spring is said to be closely coiled spring, when the spring wire is coiled so close that the plane
containing each coil is almost at right angles to the axis of the helix. In other words, the helix angle is very small. It
is usually less than 10°.
(ii) A helical spring is said to be open-coiled spring, when the spring wire is coiled in such a way, that there is large
gap between adjacent coils. In other words, the helix angle is large. It is usually more than 10°.
 Spring Material

The ideal spring material would have

• high ultimate strength
• high yield point
• low modulus of elasticity
in order to provide maximum energy storage (area under the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve).

For dynamically loaded springs, the fatigue strength properties of the material are of primary importance.

High strengths and yield points are attainable from medium- to high-carbon and alloy steels, and these are the most
common spring materials, despite their high modulus of elasticity. A few stainless-steel alloys are suitable for springs,
as are beryllium copper and phosphor bronze, among the copper alloys.

Most light-duty springs are made of cold-drawn, round or rectangular wire or of thin, cold-rolled, flat-strip stock.
Heavy-duty springs, such as vehicle-suspension parts, are typically made from hot-rolled or forged forms. Spring
materials are typically hardened in order to obtain the required strength. Small cross sections are work hardened in the
cold-drawing process. Large sections are typically heat treated. Low-temperature heat treatments (175 to 510°C) are
used after forming to relieve residual stresses and stabilize dimensions, even in small-section parts. High-temperature
quenching and tempering is used to harden larger springs that must be formed in the annealed condition.
Ultimate strength properties for many of these materials may be closely approximated by the empirical expression
Terminology of Helical-coil Compression springs

Spring Index:

The spring index C is the ratio of coil diameter D to wire

diameter d.

The preferred range of C: 4 < C < 12

At C < 4, the spring is difficult to manufacture, and at C > 12 it is prone to buckling and also tangles easily
when handled in bulk.
 Spring Lengths:

(i) Solid Length: Solid length is defined as the

axial length of the spring which is so compressed
that the adjacent coils touch each other. The solid
length is given by,
Solid length = Nt d
where, Nt = total number of coils
(ii) Compressed Length: Compressed length is
defined as the axial length of the spring, which is
subjected to maximum compressive force. In this
case, the spring is subjected to maximum force,
there should be some gap or clearance between
the adjacent coils. The gap is essential to prevent
clashing of the coils. The clashing allowance or
the total axial gap is usually taken as 15% of the
maximum deflection.
Total gap = (Nt – 1) x Gap between adjacent coils

(iii) Free Length: Free length is defined as the axial length of an unloaded helical compression spring. Free length is
given by,
free length = compressed length + δ
= solid length + total axial gap + δ
pitch of the coil:
The pitch of the coil is defined as the axial distance between adjacent coils in uncompressed state of spring. It
is denoted by p. It is given by,
p = free length / (Nt -1)

Spring stiffness / Spring rate / Spring constant:

The stiffness of the spring (k) is defined as the force required to produce unit deflection.
End Details, Active coil and Inactive coil:

Four types of end details are available on helical compression

springs: plain, plain ground, squared, and squared-ground.
The turns at the two ends do not affect the deflection calculated
by the load-deflection equation. Therefore, while calculating the
number of active turns, the end turns should be subtracted from
the total number of turns.
Plain ends result from simply cutting the coils and leaving the
ends with the same pitch as the rest of the spring. This is the
least expensive end detail, but provides poor alignment to the
surface against which the spring is pressed. The end coils can be
ground flat and perpendicular to the spring axis to provide
normal surfaces for load application. Squaring the ends involves
yielding the end coils to flatten them and remove their pitch.
This improves the alignment.
Stresses in helical spring: P

When the wire of the helical spring is uncoiled

and straightened, it takes the shape of a bar as
shown in Fig. (b). In deriving the stress
equation, this bar is considered to be equivalent T=PD/2
to the actual helical spring. The dimensions of
equivalent bar are as follows:
P
(i) The diameter of the bar is equal to the wire
diameter of the spring
(ii) The length of one coil in the spring is
(pD). There are N such active coils.
P
Therefore, the length of equivalent bar is
(pDN).
(iii) The bar is fitted with a bracket at each end.
The length of this bracket is equal to mean
coil radius of the spring (D/2). P
The free-body diagram in Figure shows that there will be two
components of stress on any cross section of a coil: a torsional P
shear stress from the torque T and a direct shear stress due to the
force P.

P
The maximum stress in the wire may be computed by superposition of the direct shear stress and the
torsional shear. The result is

……….(1) P

𝐾 𝑠 =( 1+0 . 5 𝐶 ) =Direct Shear Factor

The Curvature Effect:
If the wire were straight and were subjected to the combination of direct shear force P
and torque T shown, the previous equation (Eq. (1)) would be the exact solution.
However, this wire is curved into a coil. We learned that curved beams have a stress
concentration on the inner surface of curvature. There is higher stress at the inner surface
of the coil. Wahl determined the stress-concentration factor for round wire and defined a
factor Kw, which includes both the direct shear effects and the stress concentration due to
curvature, which is valid for round wire with C ≥ 1.2.

8 𝑃𝐷 ……….(2)
𝜏= 3
𝐾 𝑤
𝜋 𝑑
Since Wahl’s factor Kw includes both effects, we can separate them into a curvature factor Kc and the direct shear factor
Ks using

If a spring is statically loaded, then yielding is the failure criterion. If the material yields locally, it will relieve the local stress
concentration that is due to the curvature factor Kc, and Eq. (1) can be used to account just for the direct shear. But, if the
spring is dynamically loaded, then failure will be by fatigue at stresses well below the yield point, and Eq. (2) should be used
to incorporate both the direct shear and curvature effects. In a fatigue-loading case with both mean and alternating loads, Eq.
(1) can be used to compute the mean stress component and Eq. (2) used for the alternating stress component.
Spring Deflection
The deflection-force relations are quite easily obtained by using Castigliano’s theorem. The total strain energy for a
helical spring is composed of a torsional component and a shear component. The strain energy is
2 2
𝑇 𝑙 𝑃 𝑙
𝑈= +
2 𝐺𝐽 2 𝐴𝐺
Substituting T = PD/2, l = pDN, J = pd 4/32 and A = pd 2/4 result in

2 3 2
4 𝑃 𝐷 𝑁 2 𝑃 𝐷𝑁
𝑈= 4
+ 2
𝑑 𝐺 𝑑 𝐺

where N = number of active coils. Then using Castigliano’s theorem, to find total deflection d gives
3
𝜕 𝑈 8 𝑃 𝐷 𝑁 4 𝑃𝐷𝑁
𝛿= = +
𝜕𝑃 4
𝑑 𝐺
2
𝑑 𝐺
Since C = D/d, the above equation can be rearranged as

( )
3 3
8𝑃 𝐷 𝑁 1 8𝑃𝐷 𝑁
𝛿= 4
1+ 2
≈ 4 Neglecting direct shear stress
𝑑 𝐺 2𝐶 𝑑 𝐺

4
𝑃 𝑑 𝐺
The stiffness 𝑘= =
𝛿 8 𝐷3 𝑁
Example It is required to design a helical compression spring for the valve mechanism. The axial force acting on the spring
is 300 N when the valve is open and 150 N when the valve is closed. The length of the spring is 30 mm when the valve is open
and 35 mm when the valve is closed. The spring is made of oil-hardened and tempered valve spring wire and the ultimate
tensile strength is 1370 N/mm2. The permissible shear stress for the spring wire should be taken as 30% of the ultimate tensile
strength. The modulus of rigidity is 81 370 N/mm 2. The spring is to be fitted over a valve rod and the minimum inside diameter
of the spring should be 20 mm. Design the spring and calculate
(i) wire diameter; (ii) mean coil diameter; (iii) number of active coils; (iv) total number of coils; (v) free length of the spring;
and (vi) pitch of the coil.
Assume that the clearance between adjacent coils or clash allowance is 15% of the deflection under the maximum load.
Buckling of Compression Helical Spring

A compression spring is loaded as a column and can buckle if it is too

slender. A slenderness ratio can be obtained for solid columns. That
measure is not directly applicable to springs due to their much different
geometry. A similar slenderness factor is created as the aspect ratio of free
length to mean coil diameter Lf / D. If this factor is > 4 the spring may
buckle.

Gross buckling can be prevented by placing the spring in a hole or over a

rod. However, rubbing of the coils on these guides will take some of the
spring force to ground through friction and reduce the load delivered at the
spring end.
Buckling of Compression Helical Spring

Compression coil springs may buckle when the deflection

becomes too large.
Equations for prediction of critical buckling deflection, developed in a
manner similar to column-buckling equations, may be expressed in terms of
free length Lf , mean coil radius R, and the method of constraining the
ends of the spring (Table).
 Surging
If a wave is created by a disturbance at one end of a swimming pool, this wave will travel down the length of the pool, be
reflected back at the far end, and continue in this back-and-forth motion until it is finally damped out. The same effect
occurs in helical springs, and it is called spring surge. If one end of a compression spring is held against a flat surface and
the other end is disturbed by a dynamic force, a compression wave is created that travels back and forth from one end to
the other exactly like the swimming-pool wave.
Reason for Surging:
When the natural frequency of the spring is close to the operating frequency (i.e., frequency of
the applied force), a traveling displacement wave front is propagated and reflected along the
spring with about the same frequency as the exciting force.
This condition results in local condensations and rarefactions* propagating along the spring.
These phenomena may produce high stresses and/or erratic forces locally, with consequent loss
of control of the spring-loaded object. The often-cited example of an automotive valve spring
illustrates the condition; surging of a valve spring may allow the valve to open erratically when it
should be closed, or vice versa.

*
Local changes in pitch wherein a few coils may
momentarily be very close (condensation) or
significantly separated (rarefaction).
Surging

The natural frequency of helical compression springs in hertz held between two parallel plates is
given by,

The natural frequency of helical compression springs with one end on the flat plate and the other end free, supporting
the external force is given by,

The fundamental critical frequency should be greater than 15 to

20 times the frequency of the force or motion of the spring in
order to avoid resonance with the harmonics. If the frequency is
not high enough, the spring should be redesigned to increase k
or decrease m.

Note: It is important to note that these equations give the natural

frequency of the spring itself, not the natural frequency of a
spring-mass system where a mass is attached to a spring of much
smaller mass.
Pre-Setting Or Set Removal
Pre-setting or set removal is a process used in the manufacture of compression springs to induce useful residual stresses. It is
done by making the spring longer than needed and compressing it to its solid height. This operation sets the spring to the
required final length and, since the torsional yield strength has been exceeded, induces residual stresses opposite in direction
to those induced in service. Thus, this set removal increases the strength of the springs and so is especially useful when the
spring is used for energy storage purposes. However, this should not be used when springs are subjected to fatigue.

Load Reversal
Whether set or not, coil springs typically will have some residual stresses in them. For this reason it is not acceptable to
apply reversed loads to them. Assuming that the residual stresses have been arranged to be beneficial against the expected
direction of loading, reversed loading will obviously exacerbate the residual stresses and cause early failure. A compression
spring should never be loaded in tension nor a tension spring in compression. Even torsion springs, as we shall see, need to
have a unidirectional torque applied to avoid premature failure.
 Design of spring against Fluctuating Load
In the case of a spring, whether it is a compression spring or an extension spring, reverse loading is not possible. For
example, let us consider a compression spring placed between two plates. The spring under varying load can be
compressed to some maximum value and at the most can return to zero compression state (in practice, some amount of
initial compression is always present), otherwise, spring will loose contact with the plates and will get displace from its
seat. Similar reason holds good for an extension spring, it will experience certain amount of extension and again return to
at the most to zero extension state, but it will never go to compression zone. Due to varying load, the stress pattern which
occurs in a spring with respect to time is shown in Fig. The load which causes such stress pattern is called repeated load.
The spring materials, instead of testing under reversed bending, are tested under repeated torsion.

Where, τa is known as the stress amplitude and τm is

known as the mean stress or the average stress. We know
that for varying stress, the material can withstand stress
not exceeding endurance limit value. Hence, for
repeated torsion experiment, the mean stress and the
stress amplitude become,
Previously, in Soderberg diagram, we have used in the design for varying loads on the machine member, had only
stress amplitude in the endurance limit representation, since, endurance limit value was for complete reversed loading.
Here, in spring design, we use endurance limit value for repeated loads only. Hence, we have both stress amplitude and
mean stress value of equal magnitude, τe / 2. Therefore, the endurance limit representation in Goodman diagram
changes to (τe / 2, τe / 2) as shown in Fig.
The modified Soderberg diagram for repeated stress is shown in the Fig.

The stress being repeated in nature, the co-

ordinate of the point a is (τe / 2, τe / 2) . For safe
design, the design data for the mean and average
stresses, τa and τm respectively, should be below
the line a-b. If we choose a value of factor of
safety (fs), the line a-b shifts to a newer position
as shown in the figure. This line e-f in the figure
is called a safe stress line and the point A (τm , τa)
is a typical safe design point.
Considering two similar triangles, abc and Aed
respectively, a relationship between the stresses may be
developed and is given as,
𝜏𝑒
𝜏𝑎 2
=
𝜏𝑦 𝜏
− 𝜏𝑚 𝜏 𝑦 − 𝑒
𝑓𝑠 2

where τy is the shear yield point of the spring material.

Determination of induced ta and tm in spring for repeated loading

Let us consider a spring subjected to an external fluctuating force, which changes its magnitude from Pmax. to Pmin. in the
load cycle. The mean force Pm and the force amplitude Pa are given by,

The mean stress (tm) is calculated from mean force (Pm) by using shear stress correction factor (Ks). It is given by,

For torsional stress amplitude (ta), it is necessary to also consider the effect of stress concentration due to curvature in
addition to direct shear stress. Therefore,
8 𝑃𝑎 𝐷
𝜏 𝑎= 3
𝐾𝑤
𝜋 𝑑
In absence of above data, the following relationships suggested by HJ Elmendorf can be used.

For Patented and cold-drawn steel wires For oil-hardened and tempered steel wires (SW
(Grade-1 to 4), and VW grade),
Example An eccentric cam, 100 mm in diameter, rotates with an eccentricity of 10 mm as shown in Fig. The roller
follower is held against the cam by means of a helical compression spring. The force between the cam and the follower
varies from 100 N at the lowest position to 350 N at the highest position of the follower. The permissible shear stress in the
spring wire is recommended as 30% of the ultimate tensile strength. Design the spring from static considerations and
determine the factor of safety against fluctuating stresses. Neglect the effect of inertia forces.

Step I Design against static load

The spring is subjected to a fluctuating
force. Therefore, the music wire (ASTM
A228) is selected for this application.
From Fig. and for d = 3 mm
Sut = 1800 N/mm2
td = 0.3 Sut = 0.3(1800) = 540 N/mm2
Therefore,
t > td
The design is not safe.
Trial 2

From Fig. and for d = 4 mm

Sut = 1700 N/mm2 The design is satisfactory and the wire diameter should be 4 mm.
td = 0.3 Sut = 0.3(1700) = 510 N/mm2 However, the spring is subjected to fluctuating stresses and to account
for these stresses, the wire diameter is increased to 5 mm.
Therefore,
d = 5 mm
t < td
D = Cd = 6(5) = 30 mm
The design is safe.
It is observed from Fig. that the deflection of the spring between the highest and the lowest position of the follower is twice the
eccentricity or 20 mm.
From Fig. and for d = 5 mm
𝜏𝑒
Sut = 1650 N/mm2 𝜏𝑎 2
=
𝜏𝑦 𝜏
𝜏 𝑒=0 . 23 ×𝑆 𝑢𝑡 =379 . 5 𝑀𝑃𝑎 − 𝜏𝑚 𝜏 𝑦 − 𝑒
𝑓𝑠 2
𝜏 𝑦 =0 . 40 × 𝑆𝑢𝑡 =660 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑓𝑠=1 .709
 Concentric Spring

A concentric spring consists of two helical compression springs, one inside the other, having the same axis. It is shown in
Fig. Concentric spring is also called a ‘nested’ spring. Two springs shown in Fig. have opposite hand of helices. If the
outer spring has a right-hand helix, the inner spring always has a left-hand helix and vice versa
Concentric spring has the following advantages:
(i) Since there are two springs, the load carrying capacity is increased and heavy load can be transmitted in a restricted
space.
(ii) In concentric spring, the operation of the mechanism continues even if one of the springs breaks. This results in ‘fail
safe’ system.

The design analysis of concentric spring shown in Fig., is based on the

following assumptions:
(i) The springs are made of the same material.
(ii) The maximum torsional shear stresses induced in outer and inner springs
are equal.
(iii) They have the same free length.
(iv) Both springs are deflected by the same amount and therefore, have same
solid length.
 The clearance between the inner diameter of the outer
spring and outer diameter of the inner spring is an
important parameter in design of concentric springs. It
should have a certain minimum value to account for
diametral expansion of springs under the load. Suppose c
is the radial clearance between the springs. It is
illustrated in Fig. and the following relationship can be
……..(1) written:

……..(2)
 ……..(3)

Equations (1) and (3) are used to find out the force transmitted
by each spring.
 Leaf Spring, Multi-leaf spring

As illustrated in Figure, thin flat beams may be used as springs in some applications. Thin simply supported beams
subjected to transverse center loads, or thin cantilever beams subjected to transverse end loads, are the more common
configurations used.
Cantilever Beam

The bending stress at a distance x is given by

The maximum bending stress occurs at the fixed end. The maximum deflection occurs at the free end.

3
4𝑃 𝐿
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3
𝐸𝑏 𝑡
At the free end, where , the maximum outer fiber stress is zero. To use
material more efficiently, it is common practice to employ slightly
different shape to eliminate the lightly stressed material near the free
end. This may be accomplished by prescribing that stress in the above
equation remain constant, and equal to design stress all along the beam.
To obtain constant outer-fiber stress all along the beam, b may be varied
with x in such a way that
 3
6𝑃𝐿
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3
𝐸𝑏𝑡

To make it more compact, it is usually manufactured as an

equivalent multiple leaf spring, as shown in Figure. In the
multiple leaf arrangement, each leaf approximates two
symmetric half-strips cut from a constant-strength triangular
planform, then welded together lengthwise. Shorter leaves are
then stacked on top of longer leaves to form a bundle of n
leaves, each having width , as shown in the side view of Figure.

𝑏 =( 𝑛 𝑏 1)
6 𝑃𝐿
𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
( 𝑛 𝑏1 ) 𝑡 2
3
6𝑃 𝐿
𝛿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3
𝐸 ( 𝑛 𝑏1 ) 𝑡
Simply supported Beam
Similar reasoning holds for the more common case of the center-loaded simply supported
multiple leaf spring illustrated in Figure.
P
Case I
3
3 𝑃𝐿 2𝑃 𝐿
𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑏𝑡
2
𝐸𝑏 𝑡
3
t
2L

Case I b

Case II
b
3 𝑃𝐿 3𝑃𝐿
3
𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑏𝑡 𝐸𝑏𝑡
3

Case II
Uniform
Strength
 3 𝑃𝐿 3𝑃𝐿
3
𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑏𝑡 𝐸𝑏𝑡
3

3 𝑃𝐿 3𝑃 𝐿
3
𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝛿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
( 𝑛 𝑏1 ) 𝑡 2 𝐸 ( 𝑛 𝑏1 ) 𝑡
3
Multi-leaf springs are provided with one or two extra full length
leaves in addition to master leaf. The extra full-length leaves are
stacked between the master leaf and the graduated length
leaves. The extra full-length leaves are provided to support the
transverse shear force.
nf = number of extra full-length leaves
ng = number of graduated-length leaves including master leaf
n = total number of leaves
P = force applied at the end of the spring (N)
Pf = portion of P taken by the extra full-length leaves (N)
Pg = portion of P taken by the graduated-length leaves (N)

Graduated length leaves Full length leaves

3 𝑃𝑔 𝐿 3 𝑃𝑓 𝐿
𝜎 𝑔= 2
𝜎𝑓= 2
( 𝑛𝑔 𝑏1 ) 𝑡 ( 𝑛 𝑓 𝑏1 ) 𝑡
3 3
3 𝑃𝑔 𝐿 2 𝑃𝑓 𝐿
𝛿𝑔= 3
𝛿𝑓 = 3
𝐸 ( 𝑛𝑔 𝑏1 ) 𝑡 𝐸 ( 𝑛𝑓 𝑏1 ) 𝑡
It is assumed that the deflection of full-length leaves is equal to the deflection of graduated- length leaves,

and

3 𝑃𝑔 𝐿 6 𝑃𝐿
𝜎 𝑔= 2
= 2
( 𝑛𝑔 𝑏1 ) 𝑡 𝑏1 𝑡 ( 3 𝑛 𝑓 +2 𝑛𝑔 ) It is seen from the above equations that
3
𝜎 𝑓 = 𝜎𝑔 bending stresses in full-length leaves are 50%
3 𝑃𝑓 𝐿 9 𝑃𝐿 2
𝜎𝑓= 2
= 2
more than those in graduated-length leaves.
( 𝑛 𝑓 𝑏1 ) 𝑡 𝑏1 𝑡 ( 3 𝑛 𝑓 +2 𝑛𝑔 )
 Nipping of Leaf spring
As discussed in the previous section, the stresses in extra full-length leaves are 50% more than the stresses in graduated-
length leaves. One of the methods of equalizing the stresses in different leaves is to pre-stress the spring. The pre-stressing
is achieved by bending the leaves to different radii of curvature, before they are assembled with the centre clip as shown in
Fig.
The initial gap C between the extra full-length leaf and the
graduated-length leaf before the assembly, is called a ‘nip’.
Such pre-stressing, achieved by a difference in radii of
curvature, is known as ‘nipping’. Nipping is common in
automobile suspension springs.

Assuming equal stress for graduated and full length leaves,

and
Before application of load (P),
The initial pre-load Pi required to close the gap C between the
extra full-length leaves and graduated length leaves is
determined by considering the initial deflection of leaves

………….(i)

After application of load (P),

The deflection of graduated-length leaves will exceed the deflection of extra full-length
leaves by an amount equal to the initial nip C.
Therefore,

………….(ii)

From Eq. (i) and Eq. (ii), 2 𝑃 𝑛 𝑓 𝑛𝑔

𝑃 𝑖=
𝑛 ( 3 𝑛 𝑓 + 2𝑛 𝑔 )
Helical Torsion Spring
A helical coil spring can be loaded in torsion instead of compression or tension and is then called a torsion spring. The
ends of the coil are extended tangentially to provide lever arms on which to apply the moment load, as shown in Figure.
The applied moment on the coils puts the wire in bending as a curved beam, as shown in
P
Figure. The applied moment should always be arranged to close the coils rather than open
them because the residual stresses from coil-winding are favorable against a closing
moment. The applied moment should never be reversed in service.
Stresses in Torsion Spring
The helical torsion spring resists the bending moment (M = P x L), which tends to wind up the spring. The stress in the
outer fiber of a straight beam is M y / I, but this is a curved beam, and we learned that stress is concentrated at the inside
of a curved beam. Wahl derived the stress-concentration factor for the inside and at the outside of a coiled round wire in
bending as given below

𝑀𝑦 32 𝑀
Stress Equation: 𝜎 𝑏= 𝐾 𝑏 =𝐾 𝑏
𝐼 𝜋𝑑
3
Deflection of Torsion Springs
The angular deflection of the coil-end is normally expressed in radians. Since it is essentially a beam in bending, the
(angular) deflection can be expressed as

where M is the applied moment, Lw is the length of wire, E is Young’s

modulus for the material, and I is the second moment of area for the wire
cross section about the neutral axis.
 Screws, Threaded Fasteners and Its Design
The helical-thread screw was undoubtably an extremely important mechanical invention. It is the basis of power screws,
which change angular motion to linear motion to transmit power or to develop large forces (presses, jacks, lead screw etc.),
and threaded fasteners, an important element in nonpermanent joints.

The Boeing 747 uses

about 2.5 million
fasteners, some of
which cost several
dollars each.

The airframe of a
large jet aircraft has
approximately 2.4 ×
106 fasteners costing
about $750,000 in
Screw Jack (power screws)
1978 dollars.
Nut and Bolt Joint (threaded fasteners)
Type of thread

1. Vee Thread / ISO Metric Thread

Fastening threads are usually vee threads. They offer the following advantages:
(i) Vee threads result in higher friction, which lessen the possibility of loosening.
(ii) Vee threads have higher strength due to increased thread thickness at the core diameter.
(iii) Vee threads are more convenient to manufacture

Two standard series of thread-pitch

families are defined in ISO threads:
coarse series and Fine series. The
coarse series is most common and is
recommended for ordinary applications,
especially where repeated insertions
and removals of the screw are required
or where the screw is threaded into a
softer material. Coarse threads are less
likely to cross or strip the soft material
on insertion. Fine threads are more
resistant to loosening from vibrations
than coarse threads because of their
smaller helix angle and so are used in
automobiles, aircraft, and other
 Terminology

(i) Major Diameter The major diameter is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder that bounds the crest of an external thread
(d) or the root of an internal thread (D). The major diameter is the largest diameter of the screw thread. It is also called the
nominal diameter of the thread.
(ii) Minor Diameter The minor diameter is the diameter of an
imaginary cylinder that bounds the roots of an external thread
(dc) or the crest of an internal thread (Dc). The minor diameter is
the smallest diameter of the screw thread. It is also called core
or root diameter of the thread.
(iii) Pitch Diameter The pitch diameter is the diameter of an
imaginary cylinder, the surface of which would pass through the
threads at such points as to make the width of the threads equal
to the width of spaces cut by the surface of the cylinder. It is
also called the effective diameter of the thread. Pitch diameter is
denoted by dp for external threads and Dp for internal threads.
(iv) Pitch Pitch is the distance between two similar points on
adjacent threads measured parallel to the axis of the thread. It is
denoted by the letter p.
(v) Lead Lead is the distance that the nut moves parallel to the axis of the screw, when the nut is given one turn.

(vi) Thread Angle Thread angle is the angle included between the sides of the thread measured in an axial plane. Thread
angle is 60o for ISO metric threads.
Terminology
Multiple thread
If a single-threaded configuration is used, the lead is equal to the pitch. Single threads are used in most applications. If a
double- or triple-threaded configuration is used, the lead is equal to twice the pitch or three times the pitch, respectively.
Therefore, the increased lead of a multiple thread provides the advantage of rapid axial advancement. For double- or triple-
threaded configurations, either two or three parallel helical threads are machined side by side around the screw. If n is the
number of parallel threads,
l = np

All standard threads are right-hand (RH) by default unless

specified as left-hand by adding the letters LH to the
specification. A right-hand thread will advance the nut (or
screw) away from you when either is turned clockwise.
Terminology

(vii) Helix Angle The helix angle is defined as the angle made by the helix of the thread with a plane perpendicular
to the axis of the screw. The helix angle is related to the lead and the mean diameter of the screw. It is also called
lead angle. The helix angle is denoted by a.

Let us imagine that one thread of the screw is unwound and

developed for one complete turn. This development of the
thread is illustrated in Fig. The thread will become the
hypotenuse of a right-angle triangle, whose base is ( pdp) and
whose height is the lead (l). This can be imagined by cutting the
paper in the form of the right-angle triangle, with base equal to
(πdp) and height equal to (l). Wrap this paper around a rod with
pdp
diameter dp. The hypotenuse of the triangle will become the
thread around the rod. Considering this right-angle triangle, the
relationship between the helix angle, mean diameter and lead
can be expressed in the following form:
𝑙
tan 𝛼=
𝜋 𝑑𝑝
1. Vee Thread / ISO Metric Thread
Designation of Vee Thread / ISO Metric Thread

A screw thread of coarse series is designated by the letter ‘M’ followed by the value of the major diameter in mm. For
example, M 12
A screw thread of fine series is specified by the letter ‘M’, followed by the values of the nominal diameter and the pitch in
mm and separated by the symbol ‘X’. For example, M 12 X 1.25

Tensile Stress Area

If a threaded rod as shown in Figure is subjected to pure tensile loading, one might expect its strength to be limited by the
area of its minor (root) diameter, dr or dc. However, testing of threaded rods in tension shows that their tensile strength is
better defined by the average of the minor and pitch diameters. A tensile-stress area At is defined as

The stress in a threaded rod due to a pure axial tensile load F is then
Type of thread for power screw application

While the standard thread forms (V thread) described later are well suited to use in threaded fasteners, they may not be
strong enough for all power screw applications. Other thread profiles have been standardized for such applications.

2. Square Thread
The square thread provides the best strength and
efficiency.
It also eliminates any radial component of force between
the screw and nut.
However it is difficult to manufacture because of its
perpendicular face.
A modified square thread is made with a 10° included
angle (or 5° thread angle) to improve its
manufacturability.

3. Trapezoidal Thread
Trapezoidal threads are manufactured on a thread milling machine. It
employs a multipoint cutting tool. Machining with a multipoint cutting
tool is an economic operation compared with machining with a single
point cutting tool. Therefore, trapezoidal threads are economical to
manufacture.
4. Acme Thread
The Acme thread of Figure has a 29° included angle, making it easier
to manufacture and also allowing the use of a split nut that can be
squeezed radially against the screw to take up wear. The Acme thread
is a common choice for power screws that must take loads in both
directions.
Acme thread are sometimes modified to a stub form by making the
teeth shorter. This results in a larger minor diameter and a somewhat
stronger screw.

5. Buttress Thread
The buttress thread provides greater strength for unidirectional loads.
The buttress thread (Figure d) can be used to obtain greater strength
at the root than either of the other threads

Square threads are used for screw jacks, presses and clamping devices. Trapezoidal and acme threads are used for lead-
screw and other power transmission devices in machine tools. Buttress threads are used in vices, where force is applied
only in one direction. Buttress threads are ideally suited for connecting tubular components that must carry large forces
such as connecting the barrel to the housing in anti-aircraft guns.
The standard proportions of square and ISO metric trapezoidal threads are given in Tables.
Designation of square and Trapezoidal Thread

There is a particular method of designation for square and trapezoidal threads. A power screw with single-start square
threads is designated by the letters ‘Sq’ followed by the nominal diameter and the pitch expressed in millimetres and
separated by the sign ‘x’. For example,
Sq 30 x 6
It indicates single-start square threads with 30 mm nominal diameter and 6 mm pitch.

Similarly, single-start ISO metric trapezoidal threads are designated by the letters ‘Tr’ followed by the nominal diameter
and the pitch expressed in millimetres and separated by the sign ‘x’. For example,
Tr 40 x 7
It indicates single-start trapezoidal threads with 40 mm nominal diameter and 7 mm pitch.
Multiple-start trapezoidal threads are designated by the letters ‘Tr’ followed by the nominal diameter and the lead,
separated by the sign ‘x’ and in brackets the letter ‘P’ followed by the pitch expressed in millimetres. For example,
Tr 40 x 14 (P 7)
In the above designation,
lead = 14 mm, pitch = 7 mm
No. of starts = 14/7 = 2
Therefore, the above designation indicates a two-start trapezoidal thread with 40 mm nominal diameter and a 7 mm
pitch. In case of left-hand threads, the letter LH is added to the thread designation. For example,
Tr 40 x 14 (P 7) LH
 Power screws
Power screws, sometimes called jack screws, lead screws, or linear actuators, are machine elements that transform rotary
motion into translational motion, or amplify a small tangential force moving (rotationally) through a large distance into a
large axial force moving through a small distance. Geometrically, a power screw is a threaded shaft with an attached thrust
collar at one end, engaged into a mating nut. With suitable constraint, either the nut may be rotated to cause axial
translation of the threaded shaft (screw), or the screw may be rotated to cause axial translation of the nut. Common
examples include screw jacks for load lifting, C-clamps, vises, lead screws for precision lathes or other machine tools,
positive positioners for control rod drives in nuclear power reactors.
Mechanics of Power Screw with a simple application
W
Figure shows one possible arrangement of a power screw used
as a jack to lift a load. The nut is turned by an applied torque T
and the screw translates up to lift the load W or down to lower
it. There needs to be some friction at the load surface to prevent
the screw from turning with the nut. Once the load W is
engaged, this is not a problem. Alternatively, the screw could be
turned against a fixed nut to lift the load. In either case there
will be significant friction between the screw and the nut as
well as friction between the nut and base, requiring that a thrust
bearing be provided as shown.
Power Screw Force and Torque Analysis
Square Thread
Figure is used as basis for determining the torque required to raise or
lower the load. The following conclusions can be drawn on the basis of
development of thread,
(i) The screw can be considered as an inclined plane with α as the
inclination.
(ii) The load W always acts in a vertically downward direction. When the
load W is raised, it moves up the inclined plane. When the load W is
lowered, it moves down the inclined plane. pdp
(iii) The load W is raised or lowered by means of an imaginary force P dp
acting at the mean radius of the screw. The force P multiplied by the
mean radius (dp /2) gives the torque required to raise or lower the load.
Remember P is perpendicular to the load W.
Torque requirement to raise the load

pdp

The torque T required to raise the load is given by

Torque requirement to lower the load

pdp

The torque T required to lower the load is given by

Self-locking Screw

The torque T required to lower the load is given by

𝑊 𝑑𝑝
𝑇= tan ( 𝜙 − 𝛼 )
2

It can be seen that when; f < a the torque required to lower the load is negative. It indicates a condition that no force is
required to lower the load. The load itself will begin to turn the screw and descend down, unless a restraining torque is
applied. This condition is called overhauling of the screw. This condition is also called back driving of screw. This
property is not useful in screw-jack applications. However, it is useful in some other applications like a Yankee
screwdriver. In this type of screwdriver, there is a high-lead thread on the barrel and the handle is a nut. As the worker
pushes the handle axially down, the barrel turns and drives the wood screw into place.
When f ≥ a a positive torque is required to lower the load. Under this condition, the load will not turn the screw and will
not descend on its own unless an effort P is applied. In this case, the screw is said to be ‘self-locking’. A self-locking
screw
will hold the load in place without a brake. This is a very useful property in screw-jack application. For example, the
driver can jack up the car and leave the jack handle and carry out the work. The car will not descend on its own during the
work and the driver can do the work without any tension.
For a self-locking screw, 𝑙
𝜙 >𝛼 ⇒ tan 𝜙 > tan 𝛼 ⇒ 𝜇>
𝜋 𝑑𝑝
Screw Efficiency for square thread

The efficiency of any system is defined as work out / work in. The work done on a power screw is the product of torque
and angular displacement (in radians), which for one revolution of the screw is

Win = 2πT

The work delivered over one revolution is the load-force times the lead:

Wout = Wl
𝑙
tan 𝛼=
𝜋 𝑑𝑝
Efficiency:

Conclusions The efficiency of a square threaded power screw depends upon the following three factors:
(i) Mean diameter of screw
(ii) Lead of the screw
(iii) Coefficient of friction
The following conclusions can be derived from the observation
of these graphs:
(i) The efficiency of a square threaded screw increases rapidly
up to helix angle of 20°.
(ii) The efficiency is maximum, when the helix angle is between
40 to 45°.
(iii) The efficiency decreases after the maximum value is
reached.
(iv) The efficiency decreases rapidly when the helix angle
exceeds 60°.
(v) The efficiency decreases as the coefficient of friction
increases.
Force and Torque Analysis for Trapezoidal or Acme thread

The force acting on the surface of the trapezoidal / Acme thread is shown in Fig. The thread angle is (2θ).

For ISO Metric trapezoidal thread, 2θ = 30°

For acme thread, 2θ = 29°

There is a basic difference between the force acting on the thread of the
square and trapezoidal threads. In case of square threads, W is the axial load
raised by the screw. It is also the normal force acting on the thread surface.
In case of trapezoidal or acme threads, these two forces are different. As
shown in Fig., the axial force on the screw is W, while the normal force on
the thread surface is (W/cos q) or (W sec q). The frictional force depends
upon the normal force. Therefore, the effect of the thread angle is to
increase the frictional force by a term (sec θ). To account for this effect, the
coefficient of friction is taken as (m sec θ) instead of (m) in case of
trapezoidal threads. The equations derived for a square threaded screw are
used for trapezoidal or acme threads by making this change.
Force and Torque Analysis for Trapezoidal or Acme thread

Lifting load Lowering load

𝑊 ( 𝜇 sec 𝜃 + tan 𝛼 )
𝑃= 𝑊 ( 𝜇 sec 𝜃 − tan 𝛼 )
( 1 −𝜇 sec 𝜃 tan 𝛼 ) 𝑃=
( 1+𝜇 sec 𝜃 tan 𝛼 )
𝑑𝑝
𝑇 =𝑃 𝑑𝑝
2 𝑇 =𝑃
2

Efficiency:
Collar Friction Torque
Usually another component of torque must be applied in power-screw applications. When the screw is loaded axially, a
thrust or collar bearing must be employed between the rotating and stationary members in order to carry the axial
component.
The torque required to turn the thrust collar is

𝐷𝑚
𝑇 𝑐 =𝜇 𝑐 𝑊
2

The total
torque 𝑇 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =𝑇 + 𝑇 𝑐

T is torque requirement to raise/lower the load

Overall efficiency 𝑊𝑙
𝜂=
2 𝜋 𝑇 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
 Example: A machine vice, as shown in Fig., has single-start, square threads with 22 mm nominal diameter and 5 mm
pitch. The outer and inner diameters of the friction collar are 55 and 45 mm respectively. The coefficients of friction for
thread and collar are 0.15 and 0.17 respectively. The machinist can comfortably exert a force of 125 N on the handle at a
mean radius of 150 mm. Assuming uniform wear for the collar, calculate (i) the clamping force developed between the
jaws; and
(ii) the overall efficiency of the clamp.
Solution:

Given
For screw, d = 22 mm, l = p = 5 mm, m = 0.15

For collar, Do = 55 mm, Di = 45 mm, mc = 0.17

For handle P = 125 N, length = 150 mm

Step I Screw torques

dp = d – 0.5 p = 22 – 0.5(5) = 19.5 mm
𝑙 ∘
tan 𝛼= ⇒ 𝛼=4 . 666
𝜋 𝑑𝑝

tan f = m = 0.15 or f = 8.531°

𝑊 𝑑𝑝
𝑇= tan ( 𝜙 +𝛼 ) =2 . 286 𝑊 N − mm
2
 Step II Collar friction torques

For collar, Do = 55 mm, Di = 45 mm, mc = 0.17

𝐷𝑚
𝑇 𝑐 =𝜇 𝑐 𝑊 =4 .25 𝑊 N − mm
2
Step III Clamping force developed between jaws (W)
The total external torque applied to the handle is (125 X 150) N-mm.

Then,

Step IV Overall efficiency of clamp

𝑊𝑙
𝜂= =0 . 1218 or 12. 18 %
2 𝜋 𝑇 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Materials of components of power screw

There are three basic components of a power screw, viz., screw, nut and frame.

Screws are made of plain carbon steel such as 30C8, 40C8 and 45C8 or alloy
steels like 40Cr1. The screws are case hardened, e.g., the lead screw of a
lathe is case hardened by the nitriding process.
There is a relative motion between the screw and the nut and wear is
inevitable. The material for the nut should be soft and conformable to that of
the screw. The wear is always restricted to a softer surface. Therefore, if at all
a component is to be replaced, it should be the nut, which is less costly
compared to the screw. Bronze is the ideal material for nut. Mainly tin bronze
and phosphor bronze are used for nut.
The frame of a power screw is usually made of grey cast iron of grade FG
200. Cast iron is cheap, can be given any complex shape and possesses high
compressive strength
Stresses in threads in power screw or Design of screw and nut

The body of the screw is subjected to an axial force W and

torsional moment T, as shown in Fig. The direct compressive
stress sc is given by,

16 𝑇
The torsional shear stress is given by, 𝜏= 3
𝜋 𝑑𝑐

The threads of the screw, which are engaged with the nut, are subjected to transverse shear stress. The screw will tend to
shear off the threads at the core diameter under the action of the load W. The shear area of one thread is (pdct). The
transverse shear stress in the screw is given by

t = thread thickness at the core diameter (mm)

z = number of threads in engagement with the nut
The transverse shear stresses in the nut are determined in a similar way. Under the
action of the load W, the thread of the nut will tend to shear off at the nominal
diameter. The shear area of one thread is (pdt). Therefore,
 Threaded/Screw Fasteners, Threaded Joint and Its Design
Threaded joint is defined as a separable joint of two or more machine parts that are held together by means of a
threaded fastening such as a bolt and a nut. The salient features of this definition are as follows:
(i) Threaded joints are used to hold two or more machine parts together. These parts can be dismantled, if required,
without any damage to machine parts or fastening. Therefore, threaded joints are detachable joints, unlike welded joints.
(ii) Thread is the basic element of these joints. The thread is formed by cutting a helical groove on the surface of a
cylindrical rod or cylindrical hole. The threaded element can take the shape of bolt and nut, screw or stud.
Sometimes, threads are cut on the parts to be joined. Threaded joints are extensively used in mechanical assemblies. It
has been observed that over 60% of the parts have threads.
 Basic type of threaded fasteners
I. Through Bolts / Nut and bolt
A through bolt is simply called a ‘bolt’ or a ‘bolt and nut’. It is shown in Fig. (a). The bolt consists
of a cylindrical rod with head at one end and threads at the other. The cylindrical portion between
the head and the threads is called shank.

(a) Nut and Bolt

II. Tap Bolts and Cap Screws
A machine screw or cap screw (Fig. b) when it is threaded (b) Tap bolt/Screw
into a tapped hole rather than used with a nut.

III. Stud
A stud (Fig. c) is threaded on both ends and is usually screwed permanently into a tapped hole.
Threads on the two ends may or may not be identical.

(c) Stud
III. Threaded rods and Nut
A threaded rod (Fig. d) is the least common type. It is usually
used when a very long threaded member is desired.
(d) Threaded rod and Nut
Classification of Tap Screw by Thread type

All fasteners intended to make their own hole or make their own threads are called tapping screws, as in self-tapping,
thread-forming, thread-cutting, and self-drilling screws. Figure shows a selection of the many thread types available in
tapping screws.
Classification of Cap Screw by Head style

Cap Screws with Different Heads: (a) Hexagonal (b) Filister (c)
Button (d) Flat (e) Hexagonal Socket Head
Set Screw
Setscrew is used to prevent relative motion between two parts. The threaded portion of the setscrew passes through a
tapped hole in one of the parts and the end of the screw presses against the other part. The end of the screw is called the
point of the screw. The friction between the point and the part to be held prevents relative motion of that part with respect
to the part through which the setscrew is screwed. Setscrew can be used instead of key to prevent relative motion between
the hub and the shaft in small power transmission.

Types of Set Screws: (a) Flat point, (b) Dog point, (c) Cone
point, (d) Hanger point, (e) Cut Point.
Locking Devices
A universal concern is the prevention of spontaneous loosening of nuts due to vibration. Locking can be
accomplished by
the following three methods:
(i) by creating supplementary friction;
(ii) by using special locking devices like split pin;
(iii) by plastic deformation.
A large number of locking devices are available in practice. Only some of them are described
below.
i. Jam nut / Lock nut
The most common method to lock the threads is to use a jam
nut, i.e., a second nut as shown in Fig (a). It is also called a
locknut.
ii. Castle Nut with split pin
Another common method to obtain positive locking of threads
(a) Jam Nut
is to use a castle nut with a split pin. It is shown in Fig. (b). The
castle nut consists of the usual hexagonal nut but with an
addition of upper cylindrical part. This cylindrical portion has
six slots located at the centre of each face of the hexagonal part.
Due to these slots, castle nut is sometimes called a slotted nut.

(b) Castle Nut

iii. Split nut
A split nut is shown in Fig. (c). It is similar to ordinary hexagonal nut but with a saw cut.
A cap screw is provided to tighten or loosen the two parts of the nut separated by the saw
cut. Initially, the nut is tightened on the screw and then the slot is opened by means of the
cap screw. Opening of the slot results in deformation of nut and introduces additional
friction at the threads. This prevents loosening of the nut.

(c) Split Nut

iv. Locking with Set Screw
A positive locking arrangement with the help of setscrew is shown in Fig. (d). The
elastic piece is made of soft material like copper or lead. It prevents damage to the
threads when the setscrew is tightened in the nut. This arrangement results in additional
friction between the threads of the bolt and the elastic piece and prevents loosening.

v. Locking with Spring washer

Locking by spring washer is common method to prevent loosening of (d) Locking with Set Screw
threads. The spring washer consists of a ring made of hardened steel
with a cut at an angle of 15° with the ring axis as shown in Fig. (e).
The ends of the washer at the cut are slightly separated and provided
with sharp teeth. During tightening, the spring washer is compressed
and its teeth bite into the contacting surface of the nut on one side and
the base on the other. Thus, the nut gets fixed in the base. (e) Locking with Spring Washer
Terminology of Screw thread/ Vee Thread/ISO Metric Thread

The details of Vee thread has already been discussed.

Fastener Materials and Methods of Manufacture
Materials for screws, nuts, and bolts are normally selected on the basis of strength (at the operating temperatures
involved), weight, corrosion resistance, magnetic properties, life expectancy, and cost. Most fasteners are made from steel
of specifications standardized by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and summarized in Tables given in next
slide (this is not true for many aerospace and other highly critical fasteners). Heading is done cold for diameters up to
about ¾ in. and heated for larger sizes. Threads are usually formed by rolling between dies that force the material to cold-
form into the threaded contour of the die grooves. The threads thus formed are stronger than cut or ground threads in
fatigue and impact because of cold working, favorable (compressive) residual stresses at the thread roots, and a more
favorable grain structure. Because of these advantages, high-strength screws and bolts should have rolled threads.
Furthermore, the greatest fatigue strength is obtained if the threads are rolled after heat treatment so that the resulting
work hardening and favorable residual stresses are not lost. (It is, of course, less costly to roll-form the threads before
hardening.)
Fasteners are also made of aluminum (the most commonly used alloys being 2024-T4, 2111-T3, and 6061-T6), brass,
copper, nickel, Monel, Inconel, stainless steel, titanium, beryllium, and various plastics. For any application, the fastener
material must be considered in connection with potential corrosion problems associated with the anticipated environment
and the other metals involved. In addition, appropriate coatings should be considered for corrosion protection and to
reduce thread friction and wear.
Bolt loads and stresses that are due to initial tightening of a nut
Bolt loads and stresses that are due to initial tightening of a nut

It is common practice to preload the joint by tightening the bolt(s) with sufficient torque to create tensile loads that
approach their proof strength. For statically loaded assemblies, a preload that generates bolt stress as high as 90% of the
proof strength is sometimes used. For dynamically loaded assemblies (fatigue loading) a preload of 75% or more of proof
strength is commonly used.
Assuming that the bolts are suitably sized for the applied loads, these high preloads make it very unlikely that the bolts
will break in service if they do not break while being tensioned (tightened). The reasons for this are subtle and require an
understanding of how the elasticities of the bolt and the clamped members interact when the bolt is tightened and when
the external load is later applied.
An accurate determination of the bolt tensile load produced during tightening is not easy to make. One accurate way is to
use a special bolt with an axially drilled hole in which an electric-resistance strain gage is mounted. Another method
employs ultrasonic equipment to measure the length of the bolt before and after tightening. (Both the actual lengthening
of the bolt and the introduction of tensile stresses increase the time required for an ultrasonic pulse to travel from one end
of the bolt to the other, and return.) A method long used for low production rate assembly of critical parts is to measure
with a micrometer the length of the bolt before assembly and then to tighten the nut until the bolt elongates the desired
amount. This can only be done, of course, if both ends of the bolt are accessible. A modern method suited for automated
assembly operations involves continuous monitoring of the wrench torque and nut rotation. When a computer determines
that the relationship of these quantities indicates the onset of yielding, the wrench is disengaged. A more mundane, but
often effective, method is to “seat” the surfaces by tightening the screw or nut very tight and then loosening it, tighten the
screw or the nut “finger tight,” and turn it (with a wrench) a predetermined additional angle.
Stiffness
Figure shows a bolt clamping a cylinder of known cross section and length. The spring constant
of a bar in tension is found from the equation for the deflection of a tension bar:

𝐹𝑙 𝐹 𝐴𝐸
𝛿= ⇒ 𝑘= =
𝐴𝐸 𝛿 𝑙

The clamped material typically contains two or more pieces and they may be of different
materials. Also, a long bolt will have threads over only a portion of its length and thus have
two different cross-sectional areas. These different-stiffness sections act as springs in series
that combine :

lt
For a round bolt of diameter d and axially loaded thread length lt within its clamped zone of
length l as shown in Figure, the theoretical spring constant is

where Ab is the total cross-sectional area and At is the tensile-stress area of the bolt, and ls = (l –
lt) is the length of the unthreaded shank. The length of the threaded portion is standardized as
twice the bolt diameter plus 6 mm for metric bolts up to 150 mm long.
For the cylindrical material geometry in Figure (ignoring the flanges), the material
spring constant becomes

where the Am are the effective areas of the clamped materials and the Deff are the effective
diameters of those areas.

If both clamped materials are same and l1 = l2

lt
Bolt Tension with preload and External force

External Load = 0
Initially, the nut is tightened by means of a spanner, which
results in tensile force (Preloading) in the bolt.
Fi

Figure (c) plots the load-deflection behavior of both bolt and Fi

material on common axes with their initial length taken as zero
deflection. Note that the slope of the bolt line is positive, because
its length increases with increased force. The slope of the material
line is negative, as its length decreases with increasing force. The
material is shown stiffer than the bolt, since its area is typically
larger and we are assuming the same material for both. The force
in both bolt and material is the same as long as they remain in
contact. As a preload force Fi is introduced by tightening the bolt,
the deflections of bolt δb and material δm are controlled by their
spring rates and reach points A and B on their respective load-
deflection curves, as shown in Figure (c). With our assumptions
for the relative magnitudes of kb and km, the bolt stretches more
(δb) than the material compresses (δm).
When an external load P is applied to the joint of Figure (b), there is an
additional deflection Δδ introduced to both bolt and material as shown in
Figure (c). This deflection must be the same in both the bolt and the
material unless the applied load is large enough to separate the joint. The
additional deflection Δδ creates a new load situation in both the bolt and
material as shown in Figure (c). The load in the material is reduced by Pm
and moves down the material stiffness line to point D with a new value
Fm. The load in the bolt is increased by Pb and moves up the bolt stiffness
line to point C with a new value Fb. Note that the applied load P is split
into two components, one (Pm) taken by the material and one (Pb) taken
by the bolt.

lt

Fig. (b)
* If Fm has a negative value, set Fm = 0, because the material cannot support a tensile
force—it will separate.

If the relative stiffness of bolt and material are as shown in

Figure (c) (i.e., material stiffer than bolt), the material supports
the majority of the applied load and the bolt feels little
additional load above that of the initial preload. This is one
aspect of the justification for the earlier statement that “if the
bolt doesn’t fail when preloaded, it probably won’t fail in
service.”
Note, however, that if the applied load P is large enough to cause the component Pm to exceed the preload force Fi, then
the joint will separate, Fm will be zero, and the bolt will feel the full value of the applied load P. The material can no
longer contribute to supporting the load if the joint is separated. This is one reason for the very large recommended
preloads as a percentage of bolt proof strength. In order to get the full benefit of material load sharing, the preload
should be high.
The common change in deflection Δδ due to the applied load P is

Using P = Pb + Pm in the above equation

The term C is called the joint’s stiffness constant or just the joint constant. Note that C is typically < 1, and if kb is small
compared to km, C will be a small fraction. This confirms that the bolt will see only a portion of the applied load P.

Similarly,
The expressions for Pb and Pm can be substituted in the above
equations to get expressions for the bolt and material loads in
terms of the applied load P:

The load P0 required to separate the joint can be found from the expression of Fm by setting Fm to zero.
Example: Two circular plates with (2d) and (d) as outer and inner diameters respectively, are clamped together by
means of a bolt as shown in Fig. The bolt is made of plain carbon steel 45C8 (syt = 380 N/mm2 and E = 207000 N/mm2),
while the plates are made of aluminum (E = 71000 N/mm 2). The initial pre-load in the bolt is 5 kN and the external force
acting on the bolted joint is 10 kN. Determine the size of the bolt, if the factor of safety for stress is 2.5. Determine the
external load required to separate the joint.
Given Data:
Fi = 5 kN; P = 10 kN; fs = 2.5
For plates, E = 71000 N/mm2
For bolts, syt = 380 N/mm2 and E = 207000 N/mm2

Stiffness of bolt:
𝐴 𝑏 𝐸 𝜋 𝑑 2 ( 207000 )
𝑘𝑏 = = =3251 .55 𝑑 2 N / mm
𝑙 4 ( 50 )
Combined Stiffness of plate:
𝐴𝐸 𝜋 ( ( 2 𝑑 ) − 𝑑 ) ( 207000 )
2 2
2
𝑘𝑚= = =3345 .52 𝑑 N / mm
𝑙 4 ( 50 )

The joint’s stiffness constant

𝑘𝑏 3251 .55 𝑑
2
𝐶= = =0 . 492878
𝑘𝑏 + 𝑘𝑚 3251 . 55 𝑑 2 +3345 . 52 𝑑 2
The resultant tensile load on bolt:
𝐹 𝑏= 𝐹 𝑖 + 𝐶𝑃=5000 +0 . 492878 × 10000=9928 . 78 N

The tensile stress on bolt:

𝜎 𝑦𝑡 𝐹𝑏 2
𝜎 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = = ⇒ 𝐴 𝑏 =65 . 32 mm
𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑏

From Data book, a bolt with threads M12 (Ab = 84.3 mm2 ) is suitable for this joint.

The load P0 required to separate the joint

𝐹𝑖
𝑃0= = 9859 .56 N
1 −𝐶

So, the joint will be separated and the total load on the bolt will be only the external load (10 kN).

Modify the design without changing the initial preload and external load so that the joint will not be separated.
Bolted Joint under Fluctuating load
In many cases, the external applied load acting on the bolt fluctuates from zero to some
maximum value (P). The maximum and minimum bolt load is given 𝑃by, = 𝑃
𝑚𝑎𝑥
( 𝐹 𝑏 ) 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑖 + 𝐶𝑃 𝑃 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =0

( 𝐹 𝑏 ) 𝑚𝑖𝑛= 𝐹 𝑖

The maximum and the minimum stress on the bolt

𝐹𝑖 𝐶 𝑃
𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = +
𝐴𝑏 𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑖
𝜎 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝐴𝑏
The alternating and mean components of stresses are given by,
1 𝐶𝑃
𝜎 𝑎= ( 𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) =
2 2 𝐴𝑏

1 𝐹 𝑖 𝐶𝑃 𝐹𝑖
𝜎 𝑚= ( 𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜎 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) = + = + 𝜎𝑎
2 𝐴𝑏 2 𝐴𝑏 𝐴𝑏 sm = Fi / Ab + sa
sa
B
Similarly, sm = Fi / Ab + sa is a straight line AC passing through the
point A on abscissa at a distance of Fi / Ab from the origin and Fi / Ab
inclined at 45° to the abscissa. This line is called the
Kimmelmann line or simply the load line. O A sm
The fatigue diagram for bolted joint is shown in Fig. EF is the Goodman line and AC is the Kimmelmann load line.
The failure point C is the point of intersection of two straight lines EF and AC . The co-ordinates of the point C are
(sm, sa).
Equation of Goodman Line (Line EF) :
𝜎𝑚 𝜎𝑎
+ =1
𝜎 𝑢𝑡 𝜎 𝑒

Equation of Kimmelmann load line (Line AC) : se

sm = Fi / Ab + sa
𝐹
𝜎 𝑚= 𝑖 + 𝜎 𝑎
𝐴𝑏
sa / fs
Solving the above two equation, one can find the coordinate
Fi / A b sut
of C and dividing it by fs one can obtain the coordinate of B.
sm / fs
Again, suppose the external load varies from 0 to
P. 𝑃 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑃
( 𝐹 𝑏 ) 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑖 + 𝐶𝑃
𝑃 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =0
( 𝐹 𝑏 ) 𝑚𝑖𝑛= 𝐹 𝑖

The mean and alternating components of external load

are given by,
1 1
( 𝐹 𝑏 ) 𝑚= 2 {( 𝐹 𝑏 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 + ( 𝐹 𝑏 ) 𝑚𝑖𝑛 }=𝐹 𝑖 + 2 𝐶𝑃
1 1
( 𝐹 𝑏 ) 𝑎= 2 { ( 𝐹 𝑏 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 − ( 𝐹 𝑏 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 }= 2 𝐶𝑃
 Eccentric loading in bolted joint with shear load
Eccentrically loaded riveted joint
A group of bolts is frequently employed in structural joints. When the line of action of external force does not pass
through the center of gravity of these bolts, the joint is called an eccentrically loaded joint as shown in Fig.

Determination of Centre of Gravity:

The coordinates (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), (x4, y4) indicate the position of
bolt-centres with respect to the origin. G is the centre of gravity of the
group of bolts. The co-ordinates (x, y) indicate the location of the centre
of gravity.

n = number of bolts
The eccentric force can be considered as equivalent to an
imaginary force P at the centre of gravity and a moment (P x e)
about the same point. This is illustrated in Fig.
The imaginary force P at the centre of gravity results in primary
shear forces P′1 P′2 ,..., etc., given by the following equation,

′ ′ ′ ′ 𝑃
𝑃 1= 𝑃 2 = 𝑃 3= 𝑃 4=
4

The moment (P x e) about the centre of gravity results in

secondary shear forces P"1, P"2, ..., etc. If r1, r2, ..., etc., are the
radial distances of the bolt centres from the centre of gravity,
then
′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
𝑃 ×𝑒= 𝑃 1 𝑟 1 + 𝑃 2 𝑟 2+ 𝑃 3 𝑟 3 + 𝑃 4 𝑟 4

It is assumed that the secondary shear force at any bolt is

proportional to its distance from the centre of gravity.

′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
𝑃 1 =𝐶 𝑟 1 ; 𝑃 2 = 𝐶 𝑟 2 ; 𝑃 3 =𝐶 𝑟 3 ; 𝑃 4 = 𝐶 𝑟 4
 ′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
𝑃 ×𝑒= 𝑃 1 𝑟 1 + 𝑃 2 𝑟 2+ 𝑃 3 𝑟 3 + 𝑃 4 𝑟 4

′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
𝑃 1 =𝐶 𝑟 1 ; 𝑃 2 = 𝐶 𝑟 2 ; 𝑃 3 =𝐶 𝑟 3 ; 𝑃 4 = 𝐶 𝑟 4

The primary and secondary shear forces are added by vector

addition method to get the resultant shear forces P1, P2, P3, and
P4 .
Example: A steel plate subjected to a force of 5 kN and fixed to a channel by means of thre identical bolts is shown in Fig.
The bolts are made from plain carbon steel 45C8 (S yt = 380 N/mm2) and the factor of safety is 3. Specify the size of bolts.
 Eccentric loading perpendicular to the axis of bolt
A bracket, fixed to the steel structure by means of four bolts, is shown in Fig. (a). It is subjected to eccentric force P at a
distance e from the structure. The force P is perpendicular to the axis of each bolt. The lower two bolts are denoted by 2,
while the upper two bolts by 1. In this analysis, the following assumptions are made:
(i) The bracket and the steel structure are rigid.
(ii) The bolts are fitted in reamed and ground holes.
(iii) The bolts are not preloaded and there are no tensile stresses due to initial tightening.
(iv) The stress concentration in threads is neglected.
(v) All bolts are identical

The force P results in direct shear force on

the bolts. Since the bolts are identical, the
shear force on each bolt is given by,
The moment (P X e) tends to tilt the bracket about the edge C. As shown in Fig. (b), each bolt is stretched by an
amount (d) which is proportional to its vertical distance from the point C. Or,

Therefore, it can be concluded that the resisting force

induced in any bolt, due to the tendency of the bracket
to tilt under the moment (P Y e), is proportional to its
distance from the tilting edge. If P1" , P2" are the
resisting forces induced in the bolts,

where C is the constant of proportionality.

Equating the moment due to resisting forces with the
moment due to external force P about the edge C,

The bolts denoted by 1 are subjected to maximum force. In general, a bolt, which is located at the farthest distance
from the tilting edge C, is subjected to maximum force.
 ……….(1)

……….(2)

Equations (1) and (2) give shear and tensile forces that act on
the bolt due to eccentric load perpendicular to the axis of the
bolts. The direct shear stress in the bolt is given by,
Example A crane-runway bracket is fastened to the roof truss by means of two identical bolts as shown in Fig. Determine
the size of the bolts, if the permissible tensile stress in the bolts is limited to 75 N/mm 2.