Module-3

Mobile Communication Engineering: Wireless Network generations, Basic propagation

Mechanisms, Mobile radio Channel.

Principles of Cellular Communications: Cellular terminology, Cell structure and Cluster, Frequency
reuse concept, Cluster size and system capacity, Frequency Reuse Distance, Cochannel Interference
and signal quality.
WIRELESS NETWORK GENERATIONS

• Cellular systems have three generations: 1G analog, AMPS, and ETACS. 1G uses large cells and
omni-directional antennas in the 800-MHz band, while AMPS and ETACS use seven-cell reuse
patterns.
First-Generation Analog Cellular
Systems
• First-generation cellular systems use analog transmission technology, with AMPS (US, South America,
Australia, China) and ETACS (Europe) being the most popular.

• Speech signals are transmitted using FM, while control information is transmitted digitally using FSK.

• Service areas are divided into cells, each allocated a specific frequency band; the frequency spectrum is
reused across seven cells to improve voice quality.

• AMPS and ETACS systems have cell-sites with tall towers, multiple receiving antennas, and transmitters
that radiate a few hundred watts.

• Each cell-site has one control channel transmitter, one control channel receiver, and eight or more FM
duplex voice channels.
First-Generation Analog Cellular
Systems
First-Generation Analog Cellular
Systems
• All 1G cellular systems use analog frequency modulation (FM), where transmission power
depends on the bandwidth and the coverage/size of the cells.

• Reducing cell size in a cellular network can compensate for reduced transmission bandwidth per
subscriber but increases the number of cells and infrastructure costs.

• Channel spacing or bandwidth allocated to each subscriber is typically 30 kHz, 25 kHz, or a

fraction of these values
Second-Generation Digital Cellular
Systems
• Second-generation (2G) cellular systems succeeded 1G analog systems and introduced digital modulation and
advanced signal processing in both handsets and base stations, improving security, voice quality, and user capacity.

• 2G systems utilized time-division multiple access (TDMA) or code-division multiple access (CDMA) techniques to
efficiently process both voice and low-rate data, making better use of the frequency spectrum.

• Major 2G standards include IS-54/136 (US Digital Cellular), GSM (pan-European), Personal Digital Cellular (PDC),
which all use TDMA, and IS-95 (CDMA) in North America.

• 2G systems are frequency-division duplex (FDD) like 1G systems and generally operate in the 800 and 900 MHz
bands, with IS-54/136 and PDC having similar carrier spacing to 1G analog systems.

• IS-54/136, based on AMPS, supports three time-slotted subscribers per 30-kHz radio channel, using dual-mode
mobile phones with digital traffic and control channels, offering services like voicemail, SMS, and call waiting
Second-Generation Digital Cellular
Systems
Second-Generation Digital Cellular
Systems
• Global System for Mobile (GSM) supports eight time-slotted mobile subscribers per 200-kHz radio channel in both
cellular and PCS bands, while Pacific Digital Cellular (PDC), a Japanese TDMA standard, is similar to IS-136.

• The 2G CDMA standard, IS-95 (cdmaOne), can support up to 64 mobile subscribers, using orthogonal coding on
each 1.25 MHz channel.

• Speech-coding in 2G systems operates at approximately 10 kbps, designed for large cell sizes and a high number of
subscribers per cell, requiring lower speech-coding rates.

• Mobile terminal peak transmission power ranges from several hundred mW to 1W, with an average consumption of
about 100 mW; centralized power control is used to reduce battery consumption and interference.

• 2G systems transmit information in packets or frames, with typical frame lengths ranging from 5 to 40 ms, balancing
transmission stability with minimal channel change during communication
Evolution from 2G to 3G Cellular
Networks

‘
An evolution path from GSM to 3G network
Evolution from 2G to 3G Cellular
Networks

An evolution path from CDMA to 3G network

Third-Generation Digital Cellular
Systems
• The primary goal of the 3G mobile communications system is to create a unified global wireless
network that integrates various incompatible technologies currently in use around the world.

• Over time, 2G and 2.5G cellular systems and mobile devices will transition towards a global
standard, known as IMT-2000, despite the absence of a universally agreed-upon air interface.

• IMT-2000 encompasses multiple variations of CDMA technology, which differ in duplexing

methods and the number of carriers, all operating within a 5 MHz channel, compared to the 1.25
MHz channel used by earlier cdma One systems.
Third-Generation Digital Cellular
Systems
Third-Generation Digital Cellular
Systems
Third-Generation Digital Cellular
Systems
• (a) Voice in 3G systems: 3G networks will provide voice quality comparable to that of fixed telephone lines. Voicemail
will eventually be integrated with email services, utilizing advanced voice recognition and synthesis technologies.

• (b) Switched data: This refers to dial-up access for services like corporate networks, fax, or Internet access, which don't
require a fully packet-switched network.

• (c) Messaging: Building on traditional paging systems, 3G messaging includes Internet email with attachments. It can
also support applications like electronic payments and ticketing.

• (d) Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS): MMS allows users to send rich media, including text, icons, sound clips,
photographs, animations, and video clips, using the high-speed wireless capabilities of 3G networks.

• (e) Instant messaging (MMS push): MMS supports push technology, delivering messages instantly if the recipient is
online. This real-time connectivity opens up opportunities for multimedia chat.
Third-Generation Digital Cellular
Systems
• (f) Medium multimedia: A key 3G service, offering an ideal data rate for activities like web browsing,
gaming, location-based mapping, and group collaboration.

• (g) High multimedia: This service supports high-speed Internet access and on-demand high-definition
video and CD-quality audio. It can also be used for services like online software downloads.

• (h) Interactive high multimedia: Designed for high-quality videophones, videoconferencing, and
collaborative work, offering real-time communication and interaction.

• (i) Multimedia postcards: Users can capture video clips using their mobile handset's camera or upload
them via Bluetooth. These clips, along with text or voice messages, can be instantly shared with other
mobile users.
Wireless Networking Technologies

• During World War II, the use of radio signals for data transmission by the US Army inspired a group of researchers at the University
of Hawaii in 1971 to develop ALOHAnet, the first packet-based radio communication network, and the earliest wireless local area
network (WLAN). This network featured seven computers connected in a bi-directional star topology.

• The initial generation of WLAN technology operated in the unlicensed ISM band (902–928 MHz) and used spread spectrum
techniques to minimize interference from industrial machinery and small appliances. It achieved data rates of 500 kbps.

• In 1990, the IEEE 802 Executive Committee formed the 802.11 Working Group to standardize WLAN technology. The group
specified the 2.4-GHz ISM band for operations, and in 1997, IEEE 802.11 was approved as the world’s first WLAN standard,
offering data rates of 1 and 2 Mbps.

• Wireless personal area networks (WPANs), such as Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1), enable short-range wireless communication between
devices like computers, phones, keyboards, and headphones, operating in the 2.4-GHz ISM band. Meanwhile, WiMAX (based on the
IEEE 802.16 standards) is poised to deliver wireless broadband access to homes and businesses at an affordable cost.
BASIC PROPAGATION MECHANISMS

• Communication systems often experience discrepancies between received and transmitted signals due to
various transmission impairments. While ideal radio propagation occurs in free space without obstacles, this
scenario is seldom achieved in mobile communications.

• In mobile environments, radio signals with frequencies above 800 MHz exhibit small wavelengths relative to
the sizes of buildings and other obstacles, allowing them to behave like optical rays. Consequently, receivers
pick up not only direct waves but also multiple reflected, diffracted, and scattered waves.

• The main mechanisms affecting electromagnetic wave propagation in mobile communications are reflection,
diffraction, and scattering. These mechanisms lead to the vectorial addition of the various waves, resulting in
a real-time variation in signal strength.
BASIC PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
 BASIC PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
Reflection
• Propagating wave impinges on an object which is large compared to
wavelength, such as the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls, etc.
BASIC PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
Diffraction

• A change in wave pattern caused by interference between waves that

have been reflected from a surface or a point
• Causes regions of waves strengthening and weakening
• Results in bending of the wave
• Can occur in different situations when waves
• Pass through a narrow slit
• Pass the edge of a reflector
• Reflect off two different surfaces approximately one wavelength apart
BASIC PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
Diffraction
BASIC PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
Scattering

• Scattering : Objects smaller than the wavelength of the propagating

wave, e.g. foliage, street signs, lamp post.
MOBILE RADIO CHANNEL
MOBILE RADIO CHANNEL
MOBILE RADIO CHANNEL
Types of Small-Scale Fading
MOBILE RADIO CHANNEL
Types of Small-Scale Fading
MOBILE RADIO CHANNEL
Types of Small-Scale Fading
MOBILE RADIO CHANNEL
Effects of Multipath Fading
CELLULAR TERMINOLOGY
CELLULAR TERMINOLOGY
CELLULAR TERMINOLOGY
CELL STRUCTURE AND CLUSTER
CELL STRUCTURE AND CLUSTER
CELL STRUCTURE AND CLUSTER
CELL STRUCTURE AND CLUSTER
FREQUENCY REUSE CONCEPT

• Frequency Reuse and Cellular Structure: Cellular communication divides a

large geographic service area into smaller areas called cells, each with a
unique subset of frequencies. This reuse of frequencies across cells allows
for increased capacity without additional spectrum.

• Efficient Spectrum Utilization: With limited RF spectrum, cellular systems

enhance spectrum efficiency by using frequency reuse and lower-power
transmitters in smaller cells. This design supports more users in a given area.
FREQUENCY REUSE CONCEPT

• Interference Management: The network design minimizes cochannel and adjacent-channel interference,

essential for maintaining service quality. Geographic separation and optimal cell layout help manage

cochannel interference, while receiver filter quality affects adjacent-channel interference.

• Cluster Patterns and Channel Allocation: Cells using the same frequencies are placed in a non-adjacent

configuration (cluster pattern) to avoid interference. Each cell within a cluster uses distinct frequencies,

maximizing isolation and coverage.

• Capacity and System Design: The finite RF spectrum limits total channels, defining system capacity. System

design focuses on deploying available channels effectively, with smaller cells and frequency reuse increasing

capacity within the allocated spectrum.

FREQUENCY REUSE CONCEPT
CLUSTER SIZE AND SYSTEM CAPACITY
CLUSTER SIZE AND SYSTEM CAPACITY
FREQUENCY REUSE DISTANCE

• Reusing the same frequency channel in nearby cells can lead to cochannel interference, a significant
issue in cellular communication. Therefore, determining the minimum frequency reuse distance 𝐷 is
essential to reduce this interference.

• The minimum reuse distance 𝐷, which allows frequencies to be safely reused across cochannel cells,
depends on several factors, including the number of nearby cochannel cells, the type of geographic
terrain, the height of the antennas, and the power transmitted at each cell site.

• Cochannel interference is influenced by the frequency reuse ratio 𝑞q, defined as 𝑞= 𝐷/ 𝑅, where 𝐷D is
the distance between two closest cochannel cells, and 𝑅R is the cell radius. This ratio, known as the
cochannel reuse ratio or interference reduction factor, remains relevant for any cluster size 𝐾
FREQUENCY REUSE DISTANCE

• The frequency reuse ratio q is related to the cluster size (or frequency
reuse factor) K by
COCHANNEL INTERFERENCE AND SIGNAL QUALITY

• The frequency reuse method enhances spectrum usage efficiency but introduces cochannel interference due

to the repeated use of the same frequency in multiple cochannel cells. This interference impacts the quality
of received signals, influenced by the radio coverage area and interference levels.

• Cochannel interference occurs when the same carrier frequency is reused in different geographical areas.

Since interfering signals are processed similarly to the desired signal, they can desensitize the receiver, mask
the signal, or cause severe distortion in the output.

• In hexagonal cellular systems, cochannel interference can be assessed by transmitting on one channel across

all cochannel sites, where typically six interfering cells are present in the first tier. Field measurements
record signal strength at the mobile unit as it moves through its serving cell to evaluate interference.
COCHANNEL INTERFERENCE AND SIGNAL QUALITY

• In hexagonal cellular systems, cochannel interference can be assessed by transmitting on one Key
performance metrics include the carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I) and the carrier-to-noise ratio
(C/N). An acceptable C/I value of 18 dB or greater indicates good system performance. If C/I falls
below this level, it may signal cochannel interference or radio coverage issues depending on the
C/N ratio.

• Additional tests, such as "Test 2," measure interference at the cell-site with multiple mobile units
transmitting in cochannel cells. By analyzing C/I and C/N ratios at the cell-site, engineers can
determine whether the system has issues with cochannel interference, radio coverage, or both.
COCHANNEL INTERFERENCE AND SIGNAL QUALITY