PLAN FOR TONIGHT

• Record the session

• Week 7 Class notes
• Review
• Quiz
• Astronews
• Mercury, Venus and Mars
• Math session

Acadia University is located in Mi’kma’ki, the unceded ancestral territory of the Mi’kmaq nation.
EARTH IS NOT A QUIET PLACE

Active Geology. This image, taken from the International Space Station in 2006, shows a plume of ash
coming from the Cleveland Volcano in the Aleutian Islands. Although the plume was only visible for around
two hours, such events are a testament to the dynamic nature of Earth’s crust. (credit: modification of
work by NASA)
Much of what we know about the other planets is based on what and how we know about earth
“Look again at that dot. That's here. That's
home. That's us. On it everyone you love, 3
everyone you know, everyone you ever heard of,
every human being who ever was, lived out their
lives. The aggregate of our joy and suffering,
thousands of confident religions, ideologies, and
economic doctrines, every hunter and forager,
every hero and coward, every creator and
destroyer of civilization, every king and peasant,
every young couple in love, every mother and
father, hopeful child, inventor and explorer,
every teacher of morals, every corrupt politician,
every "superstar," every "supreme leader," every
saint and sinner in the history of our species
lived there--on a mote of dust suspended in a
sunbeam.”

Carl Sagan Image credit:

Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in
Space NASA/JPL-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GO5Fw Caltech
sblpT8
INTERIOR STRUCTURE

Interior Structure of Earth. The crust, mantle, and inner and outer cores (solid and liquid, respectively) as shown as revealed by seismic
studies.
Earthquakes create vibrations in the earth – give us information about the interior structure of the earth
a) S-waves – cannot travel through liquid
b) P-waves – can travel through liquid

Key idea – we have knowledge about the interior structure by studying the way vibrations/waves
pass through the earth
EARTHS MAGNETIC FIELD

Earth’s Magnetosphere. A cross-sectional view of our magnetosphere (or zone of magnetic influence), as revealed by numerous
spacecraft missions. Note how the wind of charged particles from the Sun “blows” the magnetic field outward like a windsock.

Region around the earth where charged particles are trapped and spiral around - aurora
Magnetic field tells us that the core of the planet is a metallic liquid – only way to generate a magnetic field
VOLCANOES MODIFY SURFACES

Formation of Igneous Rock as Liquid Lava Cools and Freezes. This is a lava flow
from a basaltic eruption. Basaltic lava flows quickly and can move easily over distances
of more than 20 kilometers. (credit: USGS)
VOLCANOES AND PLATES

Earth’s Continental Plates. This map shows the major plates into which the crust of
Earth is divided. Arrows indicate the motion of the plates at average speeds of 4 to 5
centimeters per year, similar to the rate at which your hair grows.
EDGES

Rift Zone and Subduction Zone. Rift and subduction zones are the regions (mostly
beneath the oceans) where new crust is formed and old crust is destroyed as part of
the cycle of plate tectonics.
Volcanoes – places where magma can rise to the surface
CALIFORNIA IS NOT PERFECT

San Andreas Fault. We see part of a very active region in California where one crustal
plate is sliding sideways with respect to the other. The fault is marked by the valley
running up the right side of the photo. Major slippages along this fault can produce
extremely destructive earthquakes. (credit: John Wiley)
ATMOSPHERE SHAPES SURFACE

Mountains on Earth. The Torres del Paine are a young region of Earth’s crust where
sharp mountain peaks are being sculpted by glaciers. We owe the beauty of our young,
steep mountains to the erosion by ice and water. (credit: David Morrison)
 ATMOSPHERE IS THIN
Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere.
Height increases up the left side of the
diagram, and the names of the different
atmospheric layers are shown at the
right. In the upper ionosphere, ultraviolet
radiation from the Sun can strip
electrons from their atoms, leaving the
atmosphere ionized. The curving red line
shows the temperature (see the scale on
the x-axis).

Ozone layer important for life as it

prevents most UV radiation from
reaching surface of earth

Temperature is kelvin.
300 K is about 26 C

Radius of earth – 6400 km

CLIMATE HISTORICALLY CYCLICAL

Ice Age. This computer-generated image shows the frozen areas of the Northern
Hemisphere during past ice ages from the vantage point of looking down on the North
Pole. The area in black indicates the most recent glaciation (coverage by glaciers), and
the area in gray shows the maximum level of glaciation ever reached. (credit:
modification of work by Hannes Grobe/AWI)
Caused by precession – the tilt of the earth is not constant – when the tilt is away from
the sun during summer, northern hemisphere cools and triggers ice age
Effect is included in climate models and does NOT explain current trends
EARLY LIFE

Cross-Sections of Fossil Stromatolites. This polished cross-section of a fossilized

colony of stromatolites dates to the Precambrian Era. The layered, domelike structures
are mats of sediment trapped in shallow waters by large numbers of blue-green
bacteria that can photosynthesize. Such colonies of microorganisms date back more
than 3 billion years. (credit: James St. John)
Oldest evidence for life around 3.5 billion years ago
BIODIVERSITY

Tree of Life. This chart shows the main subdivisions of life on Earth and how they are
related. Note that the animal and plant kingdoms are just short branches on the far
right, along with the fungi. The most fundamental division of Earth’s living things is onto
three large domains called bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. Most of the species listed
are microscopic. (credit: modification of work by Eric Gaba)
ATMOSPHERE MODIFIES CLIMATE

How the Greenhouse Effect Works. Sunlight that penetrates to Earth’s lower
atmosphere and surface is reradiated as infrared or heat radiation, which is trapped by
greenhouse gases such as water vapor, methane, and CO2 in the atmosphere. The
result is a higher surface temperature for our planet.
With no greenhouse gases in atmosphere, earth would be much colder than it is
HUMANS MODIFY ATMOSPHERE

Increase of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide over Time. Scientists expect that the
amount of CO2 will double its preindustrial level before the end of the twenty-first
century. Measurements of the isotopic signatures of this added CO 2 demonstrate that it
is mostly coming from burning fossil fuels. (credit: modification of work by NOAA)
SOME CRATERS

Ouarkziz Impact Crater. Located in Algeria, this crater (the round feature in the center)
is the result of a meteor impact during the Cretaceous period. Although the crater has
experienced heavy erosion, this image from the International Space Station shows the
circular pattern resulting from impact. (credit: modification of work by NASA)
MORE RECENT EVENTS

Aftermath of the Tunguska Explosion. This photograph, taken 21 years after the blast, shows a part of
the forest that was destroyed by the 5-megaton explosion, resulting when a stony projectile about the size
of a small office building (40 meters in diameter) collided with our planet. (credit: modification of work by
Leonid Kulik)
Event occurred June 30, 1908 near the Tunguska river – a remote location in what is now Russia
OLDER CRATER

Meteor Crater in Arizona. Here we see a 50,000-year-old impact crater made by the
collision of a 40-meter lump of iron with our planet. Although impact craters are
common on less active bodies such as the Moon, this is one of the very few well-
preserved craters on Earth. (modification of work by D. Roddy/USGS)
LOCAL CRATER?

A bit of a mystery

Nalepa, M. (2012). Investigation of the form and age of the Bloody Creek Crater, southwestern Nova Scotia.
https://scholar.acadiau.ca/islandora/object/theses:888
A BIG ONE

Site of the Chicxulub Crater. This map shows the location of the impact crater created 65 million years ago on Mexico’s Yucatán
peninsula. The crater is now buried under more than 500 meters of sediment. (credit: modification of work by “Carport”/Wikimedia)
This is the event that we believe led to the mass extinction of the dinosaurs about 65 million years ago

Craters – all evidence that objects from space collide with earth
EVIDENCE OF GEOLOGICAL ACTIVITY

Two Sides of the Moon. The left image shows part of the hemisphere that faces Earth;
several dark maria are visible. The right image shows part of the hemisphere that faces
away from Earth; it is dominated by highlands. The resolution of this image is several
kilometers, similar to that of high-powered binoculars or a small telescope. (credit:
modification of work by NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University)
The large, roughly circular, dark and somewhat younger maria are believed to be
lava flows
OLDER PARTS HEAVILY CRATERED

Lunar Highlands. The old, heavily cratered lunar highlands make up 83% of the Moon’s surface. (credit: Apollo 11 Crew, NASA)

Crater density is a good measure of the age of a surface – lots of craters = old surface
10 times more craters in the lunar highlands than the maria – suggests cratering rates were much higher in the early
solar system
NO ATMOSPHERE

Lunar Mountain. This photo of Mt. Hadley on the edge of Mare Imbrium was taken by
Dave Scott, one of the Apollo 15 astronauts. Note the smooth contours of the lunar
mountains, which have not been sculpted by water or ice. (credit: NASA/Apollo Lunar
Surface Journal)
NOT SO MANY CRATERS

Lunar Maria. About 17% of the Moon’s surface consists of the maria—flat plains of
basaltic lava. This view of Mare Imbrium also shows numerous secondary craters and
evidence of material ejected from the large crater Copernicus on the upper horizon.
Copernicus is an impact crater almost 100 kilometers in diameter that was formed long
after the lava in Imbrium had already been deposited. (credit: NASA, Apollo 17)
MOON ROCKS

Rock from a Lunar Mare. In this sample of basalt from the mare surface, you can see
the holes left by gas bubbles, which are characteristic of rock formed from lava. All
lunar rocks are chemically distinct from terrestrial rocks, a fact that has allowed
scientists to identify a few lunar samples among the thousands of meteorites that reach
Earth. (credit: modification of work by NASA)
VOLCANO VS CRATER

Volcanic and Impact Craters. Profiles of a typical terrestrial volcanic crater and a
typical lunar impact crater are quite different.
CRATER FORMATION

Stages in the Formation of an Impact Crater.

(a) The impact occurs.
(b) The projectile vaporizes and a shock wave spreads through the lunar rock.
(c) Ejecta are thrown out of the crater.
(d) Most of the ejected material falls back to fill the crater, forming an ejecta blanket.
RECENT CRATER

Typical Impact Crater. King Crater on the far side of the Moon, a fairly recent lunar
crater 75 kilometers in diameter, shows most of the features associated with large
impact structures. (credit: NASA/JSC/Arizona State University)
CRATERING RATES

Cratering Rates over Time. The number of craters being made on the Moon’s surface has
varied with time over the past 4.3 billion years.

Evidence – lots of craters on older highlands compared to younger maria

ASTRO NEWS

The Lunar
Reconnaissance
Orbiter captured this
view of the Nova-C
landing site. The
arrow indicates the
Nova-C lander, also
called Odysseus. The
image width is 973
meters.
NASA / GSFC / Arizona
State University

https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/a-lunar-
odyssey-odie-lander-touches-down-on-the-moon/
TIMELINE
Launched Feb 15
Landed on Moon Feb 22
However, it has fallen over and the mission is being curtailed.
MERCURY - INTERNAL STRUCTURE

Mercury’s Internal Structure. The interior of Mercury is dominated by a metallic core

about the same size as our Moon.
Mercury’s magnetic field is weak – about 1% that of earths
ROTATION RATES

Doppler Radar Measures Rotation. When a radar beam is reflected from a rotating
planet, the motion of one side of the planet’s disk toward us and the other side away
from us causes Doppler shifts in the reflected signal. The effect is to cause both a
redshift and a blueshift, widening the spread of frequencies in the radio beam.
SURFACE FEATURES

Mercury’s Topography. The topography of Mercury’s northern hemisphere is mapped in great detail
from MESSENGER data. The lowest regions are shown in purple and blue, and the highest regions are
shown in red. The difference in elevation between the lowest and highest regions shown here is roughly
10 kilometers. The permanently shadowed low-lying craters near the north pole contain radar-bright
water ice. (credit: modification of work by NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics
Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington)
CLOSER LOOK

Caloris Basin. This partially flooded impact basin is the largest known structural
feature on Mercury. The smooth plains in the interior of the basin have an area of
almost two million square kilometers. Compare this photo with Figure 9.11, the
Orientale Basin on the Moon. (credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics
Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington)
EVIDENCE OF GEOLOGICAL ACTIVITY

Discovery Scarp on Mercury. This long cliff, nearly 1 kilometer high and more than
100 kilometers long, cuts across several craters. Astronomers conclude that the
compression that made “wrinkles” like this in the plank’s surface must have taken
place after the craters were formed. (credit: modification of work by
NASA/JPL/Northwestern University)
VENUS

Venus as Photographed by the Pioneer Venus Orbiter. This ultraviolet image shows
an upper-atmosphere cloud structure that would be invisible at visible wavelengths.
Note that there is not even a glimpse of the planet’s surface. (credit: modification of
work by NASA)
THROUGH THE CLOUDS

Radar Map of Venus. This composite image has a resolution of about 3 kilometers.
Colors have been added to indicate elevation, with blue meaning low and brown and
white high. The large continent Aphrodite stretches around the equator, where the
bright (therefore rough) surface has been deformed by tectonic forces in the crust of
Venus. (credit: modification of work by NASA/JPL/USGS)
CLOSER LOOK

Impact Craters on Venus.

(a) These large impact craters are in the Lavinia region of Venus. Because they are rough, the crater rims and ejecta appear brighter
in these radar images than do the smoother surrounding lava plains. The largest of these craters has a diameter of 50 kilometers.
(b) This small, complex crater is named after writer Gertrude Stein. The triple impact was caused by the breaking apart of the
incoming asteroid during its passage through the thick atmosphere of Venus. The projectile had an initial diameter of between 1
and 2 kilometers. (credit a: modification of work by NASA/JPL; credit b: modification of work by NASA/JPL)
GEOLOGICAL ACTIVITY

Pancake-Shaped Volcanoes on Venus. These remarkable circular domes, each about

25 kilometers across and about 2 kilometers tall, are the result of eruptions of highly
viscous (sludgy) lava that spreads out evenly in all directions. (credit: modification of
work by NASA/JPL)
FUNNY SHAPES

The “Miss Piggy” Corona. Fotla Corona is located in the plains to the south of Aphrodite Terra.
Curved fracture patterns show where the material beneath has put stress on the surface. A
number of pancake and dome volcanoes are also visible. Fotla was a Celtic fertility goddess.
Some students see a resemblance between this corona and Miss Piggy of the Muppets (her left
ear, at the top of the picture, is the pancake volcano in the upper center of the image). (credit:
NASA/JPL)
MORE ACTIVITY EVIDENCE

Ridges and Cracks. This region of the Lakshmi Plains on Venus has been fractured by tectonic forces
to produce a cross-hatched grid of cracks and ridges. Be sure to notice the fainter linear features that
run perpendicular to the brighter ones. As this is a radar image, the brightness of the ridges indicates
their relative height. This image shows a region about 80 kilometers wide and 37 kilometers high.
Lakshmi is a Hindu goddess of prosperity. (credit: modification of work by Magellan Team, JPL, NASA)
ON THE GROUND!

Surface of Venus. These views of the surface of Venus are from the Venera 13
spacecraft. Everything is orange because the thick atmosphere of Venus absorbs the
bluer colors of light. The horizon is visible in the upper corner of each image. (credit:
NASA)
RUNAWAY GREENHOUSE EFFECT

Venus’ Atmosphere. The layers of the massive atmosphere of Venus shown here are
based on data from the Pioneer and Venera entry probes. Height is measured along the
left axis, the bottom scale shows temperature, and the red line allows you to read off
the temperature at each height. Notice how steeply the temperature rises below the
clouds, thanks to the planet’s huge greenhouse effect.
MARS

Spirit Rover on Mars. This May 2004 image shows the tracks made by the Mars
Exploration Spirit rover on the surface of the red planet. Spirit was active on Mars
between 2004 and 2010, twenty times longer than its planners had expected. It “drove”
over 7.73 kilometers in the process of examining the martian landscape. (credit:
modification of work by NASA/JPL/Cornell)
IMAGES

Mars as Seen from Earth’s Surface. These are among the best Earth-based photos of
Mars, taken in 1988 when the planet was exceptionally close to Earth. The polar caps
and dark surface markings are evident, but not topographic features. (credit: modification
of work by Steve Larson, Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona)
OLDER PERSPECTIVE

Lowell’s Mars Globe. One of the remarkable globes of Mars prepared by Percival
Lowell, showing a network of dozens of canals, oases, and triangular water reservoirs
that he claimed were visible on the red planet.
LOWELL

Percival Lowell (1855–1916). This 1914 photograph shows Percival Lowell observing Venus
with his 24-inch telescope at Flagstaff, Arizona.

refractor
MODERN IMAGES

Mars Photographed by the Hubble Space Telescope. This is one of the best photos of
Mars taken from our planet, obtained in June 2001 when Mars was only 68 million
kilometers away. The resolution is about 20 kilometers—much better than can be obtained
with ground-based telescopes but still insufficient to reveal the underlying geology of
Mars. (credit: modification of work by NASA and the Hubble Heritage Team
(STScI/AURA))
ON THE GROUND

Surface View from Mars Pathfinder. The scene from the Pathfinder lander shows a windswept plain,
sculpted long ago when water flowed out of the martian highlands and into the depression where the
spacecraft landed. The Sojourner rover, the first wheeled vehicle on Mars, is about the size of a microwave
oven. Its flat top contains solar cells that provided electricity to run the vehicle. You can see the ramp from
the lander and the path the rover took to the larger rock that the mission team nicknamed “Yogi.” (credit:
NASA/JPL)
IMPACTS

Victoria Crater.
(a) This crater in Meridiani Planum is 800 meters wide, making it slightly smaller than Meteor crater on Earth. Note the dune
field in the interior.
(b) This image shows the view from the Opportunity rover as it scouted the rim of Victoria crater looking for a safe route
down into the interior. (credit a: modification of work by NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona/Cornell/Phio State
University; credit b: modification of work by NASA/JPL/Cornell)
MARS ON EARTH

Martian Meteorite. This fragment of basalt, ejected from Mars in a crater-forming

impact, eventually arrived on Earth’s surface. (credit: NASA)
SURFACE STRUCTURE

Mars Map from Laser Ranging. These globes are highly precise topographic maps,
reconstructed from millions of individual elevation measurements made with the Mars Global
Surveyor. Color is used to indicate elevation. The hemisphere on the left includes the Tharsis
bulge and Olympus Mons, the highest mountain on Mars; the hemisphere on the right includes the
Hellas basin, which has the lowest elevation on Mars. (credit: modification of work by NASA/JPL)
“THE BIG MON”

Olympus Mons. The largest volcano on Mars, and probably the largest in the solar
system, is Olympus Mons, illustrated in this computer-generated rendering based on data
from the Mars Global Surveyor’s laser altimeter. Placed on Earth, the base of Olympus
Mons would completely cover the state of Missouri; the caldera, the circular opening at the
top, is 65 kilometers across, about the size of Los Angeles. (credit: NASA/Corbis)
AMAZING CANYON

Heavily Eroded Canyonlands on Mars. This image shows the Valles Marineris
canyon complex, which is 3000 kilometers long and 8 kilometers deep. (credit:
NASA/JPL/USGS)
ACTIVE SURFACE

Martian Landslides. This Viking orbiter image shows Ophir Chasma, one of the
connected valleys of the Valles Marineris canyon system. Look carefully and you can see
enormous landslides whose debris is piled up underneath the cliff wall, which tower up to
10 kilometers above the canyon floor. (credit: modification of work by NASA/JPL/USGS)
LANDSCAPE

Three Martian Landing Sites. The Mars landers Viking 1 in Chryse, Pathfinder in Ares Valley, and Viking 2 in
Utopia, all photographed their immediate surroundings. It is apparent from the similarity of these three photos
that each spacecraft touched down on a flat, windswept plain littered with rocks ranging from tiny pebbles up to
meter-size boulders. It is probable that most of Mars looks like this on the surface. (credit “Viking 1”:
modification of work by Van der Hoorn/NASA; credit “Pathfinder”: modification of work by NASA; credit “Viking
2”: modification of work by NASA; credit Mars: modification of work by NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center)
ATMOSPHERE

Very thin atmosphere – P ~0.007 bar (Earth is 1 bar)

Carbon dioxide – 95%
Nitrogen – 3%
Argon – 2%
Weak winds because “air” is so thin
Liquid water is not stable in this atmosphere
Surface temperature about -60 C
WATER!

Water Frost in Utopia. This image of surface frost was photographed at the Viking 2
landing site during late winter. (credit: NASA/JPL)
WINDS

Dust Devil Tracks and Sand Dunes.

(a) This high-resolution photo from the Mars Global Surveyor shows the dark tracks of several dust devils that have stripped away a thin
coating of light-colored dust. This view is of an area about 3 kilometers across. Dust devils are one of the most important ways that dust
gets redistributed by the martian winds. They may also help keep the solar panels of our rovers free of dust.

(b) These windblown sand dunes on Mars overlay a lighter sandy surface. Each dune in this high-resolution view is about 1 kilometer
across. (credit a: modification of work by NASA/JPL/University of Arizona; credit b: modification of work by NASA/JPL-Caltech/University
of Arizona)
MORE WIND EVIDENCE

Wind Erosion on Mars. These long straight ridges, called yardangs, are aligned with
the dominant wind direction. This is a high-resolution image from the Mars
Reconnaissance Orbiter and is about 1 kilometer wide. (credit:
NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona)
POLAR CAP

Martian North Polar Cap.

(a) This is a composite image of the north pole in summer, obtained in October 2006 by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. It shows the
mostly water-ice residual cap sitting atop light, tan-colored, layered sediments. Note that although the border of this photo is circular, it
shows only a small part of the planet.

(b) Here we see a small section of the layered terrain near the martian north pole. There is a mound about 40 meters high that is sticking out
of a trough in the center of the picture. (credit a: modification of work by NASA/JPL/MSSS; credit b: modification of work by NASA/JPL-
Caltech/University of Arizona)

(c) Caps are frozen carbon dioxide – dry ice

WATER AGAIN

Evaporating Ice on Mars. We see a trench dug by the Phoenix lander in the north
polar region four martian days apart in June 2008. If you look at the shadowed region in
the bottom left of the trench, you can see three spots of ice in the left image which have
sublimated away in the right image. (credit: modification of work by NASA/JPL-
Caltech/University of Arizona/Texas A&M University)
OLD RIVERS

Runoff and Outflow Channels.

(a) These runoff channels in the old martian highlands are interpreted as the valleys of ancient rivers fed by either rain or
underground springs. The width of this image is about 200 kilometers.
(b) This intriguing channel, called Nanedi Valles, resembles Earth riverbeds in some (but not all) ways. The tight curves and
terraces seen in the channel certainly suggest the sustained flow of a fluid like water. The channel is about 2.5 kilometers
across. (credit a: modification of work by Jim Secosky/NASA; credit b: modification of work by Jim Secosky/NASA)
RUN OFF

Gullies on the Wall of Garni Crater. This high-resolution image is from the Mars
Reconnaissance Orbiter. The dark streaks, which are each several hundred meters
long, change in a seasonal pattern that suggests they are caused by the temporary flow
of surface water. (credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona)
RUN OFF

Evidence for Liquid Water on Mars. The dark streaks in Horowitz crater, which move downslope, have
been called recurring slope lineae. The streaks in the center of the image go down the wall of the crater for
about a distance of 100 meters. Spectra taken of this region indicate that these are locations where salty
liquid water flows on or just below the surface of Mars. (The vertical dimension is exaggerated by a factor of
1.5 compared to horizontal dimensions.) (credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona)
OLD LAKE BED

Gale Crater.

(a) This scene, photographed by the Curiosity rover, shows an ancient lakebed of cracked mudstones.

(b) Geologists working with the Curiosity rover interpret this image of cross-bedded sandstone in Gale crater as evidence of
liquid water passing over a loose bed of sediment at the time this rock formed. (credit a: modification of work by
NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS; credit b: modification of work by NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS)
PECULIAR STRUCTURES

Face on Mars. The so-called “Face on Mars” is seen (a) in low resolution from Viking
(the “face” is in the upper part of the picture) and (b) with 20 times better resolution from
the Mars Global Surveyor. (credit a: modification of work NASA/JPL; credit b:
modification of work by NASA/JPL/MSSS)
MATH PRACTICE