GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

SYSTEMS
Mr. CLIVE KWEKA
2024/25
 INTRODUCTION

Relevancy of GIS today’s world

• Urban Planning:

 Designing sustainable and efficient urban spaces.

 It aids in zoning, infrastructure planning, and analyzing population trends.

• Transportation and Logistics:

 Helps in route planning, traffic management, and logistics.

 It enhances efficiency in supply chain management and delivery services.

 INTRODUCTION

Relevancy of GIS today’s world

• Environmental Management:

 Monitor and manage natural resources.

 Ecological modeling, conservation planning, and assessing the impact of

human activities on the environment.

• Agriculture:

 Precision farming leverages GIS to optimize crop yield.

 It assists in soil analysis, crop monitoring, and water resource management,

leading to sustainable agricultural practices.
 INTRODUCTION

Relevancy of GIS today’s world

• Resource Management:

 It helps in sustainable resource utilization and biodiversity

conservation.

• Social Sciences:

 GIS is applied in sociology, anthropology, and demography to study

population distribution, migration patterns, and social phenomena.

 It aids in understanding the spatial aspects of human behavior.

 INTRODUCTION

Relevancy of GIS today’s world

• Disaster Management:

 Emergency response and recovery efforts.

 map affected areas, plan evacuation routes, and allocate resources efficiently.

• Public Health:

 Tracking disease outbreaks, managing healthcare resources, and analyzing

the spatial distribution of health issues.

 It contributes to better-informed decision-making in public health.

 INTRODUCTION

Relevancy of GIS today’s world

• Energy Sector:

 Planning and maintenance of energy infrastructure.

 Site selection of renewable energy projects, optimizing power distribution, and

managing utility networks.

• Defense and Security:

 Strategic planning, intelligence analysis, and border surveillance.

 It enhances situational awareness and supports decision-making in defense

operations.
 INTRODUCTION

Preamble

• A geographic information system (GIS) is simply computer-based system

designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all
types of spatial or geographical data.

• GIS is a technology comprising set of tools for converting

spatial/geographical ( data comprise of spatial reference i.e. long and
latitude) data into information.

• Sometimes the term GIS is used for Geospatial sciences or Geographical

Information Science.
 Preamble…

• In a general sense, the Information System describes any information

system that integrates, stores, edits, analyzes, shares, and displays
information.

• Whilst Geographical Information Systems allows the transformation of data

into information via: structuring, formatting, conversion and modeling GIS:
transforms data with a spatial component.

• A spatial components here refer to location- based data, with coordinates

(Latitude and longitude), on, below or above earths surface. The data with
the “where”
 Preamble…

What GIS helps to solve

• Every day you ask questions with a spatial component. Whether you are at work,
studying or at leisure you probably ask spatial questions.

• Many of these questions you answer for yourself without reference to a map or a GIS,
but both of these tools could help.

• GIS helps to understand, analyze, interpret and visualize the earth in several
dimensions.

• GIS is useful when you need to answer questions about location, patterns, trends,
conditions and implications such as those explained in the next slides;
 What is GIS?

• There has been quite a lot of definitions in attempt to define GIS but it’s
still difficult to offer a definition that will provide the meaning of GIS
exhaustively.

• Given the complexity of the term GIS, definitions given tend to differ
depending on who defines it based on their view points, backgrounds,
disciplinary perceptions, technological change and how they apply GIS.
 Defining GIS …

The following are various definition of GIS offered by different

authors;

 Rhind (1989:28) proposes that GIS is a computer system that

can hold and use data describing places on the Earth’s surface.
 Burrough (1986:6): a set of tools for collecting, storing,
retrieving at will, transforming, and displaying spatial data from
the real world for a particular set of purposes.
 Defining GIS ….
 The Department of the Environment (1987: 132): a system for
capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analysing and
displaying data which are spatially referenced to the Earth, fall into
this category.

 NCGIA (1990): GIS is a system of hardware, software and procedures

to facilitate the management, manipulation, analysis, modelling,
representation and display of georeferenced data to solve complex
problems regarding planning and management of resources.
 Defining GIS ...
• Generally, GIS is system of integrated computer base tools for end to
end processing (capture, storage, retrieval, display and analysis) of
spatially referenced data (using explicit location on the earth’s
surface) to relate data aimed at decision support as well as various
operations going on i.e. planning, management, development and
humanitarian solutions”.
 Understanding GIS definition…

The key concepts that are derived from the definitions of GIS are;

1. The computerized system i.e. hardware, software and the

appropriate.

2. GIS uses spatially referenced data or geographic data.

3. GIS manages and performs the analysis task of spatial or geographic

data
Components of GIS
GIS is not software only
as it can be thought by
some people, there are
several components of
GIS that are; Hardware,
Software, Data, Processes
and People.
 Components of GIS
Hardware:

 Hardware is the computer system on which a GIS operates.

 GIS operates from whole range of computer spectrum ranging from Portable
Personal Computers (PCs) and Multi-User Super-Computers.

 Physical device used as a part of a computer system needed to support GIS.

These computer devices are divided into Central Processing Unit (CPU) and
Peripheral devices. CPU=Heart of the Computer. Peripheral devices i.e. mouse,
scanners, plotters, screen, keyboard etc.
Components of GIS…

 Software: This is program or collection of instructions that perform a

specific task. Software is divided into; Operating System, Auxiliary Devices
Software and Application Software. The software is normally built with
commanding languages that are intended to give instruction. GIS software
are essential in input, storage, analyzing and visualization of data.

 Data: This is probably the most important component in GIS. This are
geographical data and related data stored in DBMS, integrated and
displayed by GIS software. E.g. Data about road network, temperature,
administrative boundaries etc.
Components of GIS…

 Processes/Methods: Data management and analysis procedures. A

successful GIS operates according to a well-designed implementation
plan and business rules, which are the models and operating
practices unique to each organization.

 People: GIS technology would not without the people who manage
the system and develop plans for applying it to real world problems.
GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain
the system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday
work. Its people who make decisions based on the outcome.
People, Hardware, Software, Data and
Processes as Components of GIS
 History of GIS

The history of GIS is divided into seven phases namely; Orthodox

development of GIS ideas, Development of Geographical
Information Systems, Commercialization of GIS, Expansion
and Integration, Internet and Open Source GIS, Mobile and
Cloud-based Services and Current Development(Modern
GIS and AI Integration).
1. Orthodox development of GIS ideas (The Dark Ages)

 The early application of Geographical information Systems was

by The French geographer Charles who created a map by
halftone color gradient showing a distribution of deaths by
cholera.
 Orthodox development of GIS ideas…
 In 1854 John Snow determined the source of a cholera outbreak in
London by marking points on a map depicting where the cholera
victims lived, and connecting the cluster that he found with a
nearby water source.

 While the basic elements of topography and theme existed

previously in cartography , the John Snow map was unique,
using cartographic methods not only to depict but also to
analyze clusters of geographically dependent phenomena.
Orthodox development of GIS ideas…
E.W gilbert’s
version (1958) of
John snow‘s
1855 map of the
soho cholera
outbreak showing
the clusters of
cholera cases in
the London
Epidemic of 1854
Orthodox development of GIS ideas…

 Previously, one of the first applications of spatial analysis in epidemiology is

the 1832.

 The French geographer Charles Picquet represented the 48 districts of the

city of Paris by halftone color gradient according to the percentage of
deaths by cholera per 1,000 inhabitants.

 In the early 20th century developed a is the photographic process

developed by Sir Henry James known as photo zincography was developed
which allowed maps to be split into layers e.g. one layer for vegetation and
another for water.
Orthodox development of GIS ideas…

 This was particularly used for printing contours. Drawing these maps
were a labor-intensive task but having them on a separate layer
meant they could be worked on without the other layers to confuse
the draftsman.

 The use of layers much later became one of the main typical features
of a contemporary GIS, however the photographic process is not
considered to be a GIS in itself – as the maps were just images with
no database to link them to.
 2. Development of Geographical Information Systems (GIS
Pioneering)

 The first known use of the term "geographic information system "
was by Roger Tomlinson in the year 1968 in his paper "A
Geographic Information System for Regional Planning".

 Tomlinson is also acknowledged as the “ father of GIS"

 GIS is built on the knowledge of geography, cartography, computer

science and mathematics.
 2. Development of Geographical Information Systems (GIS
Pioneering)… 1960S-1970S

 In this period there are some notable developments came together

with advancements in technology:
• Map graphics as outputs using line printers.
• Advances in data storage with mainframe computers.
• Recording coordinates as data input.
 Development of GIS…
 In the 1960s after the invention of computers, Canadians and Americans developed
interest in applying computers to produce maps and for analyzing spatial data.

 During Roger Tomlinson’s tenure with the Canadian government in the 1960s, he
initiated, planned, and directed the development of the Canadian Geographic System
(CGIS).

 This was a key time in the history of GIS because many consider CGIS as the roots of
Geographic Information Systems. CGIS was unique because it adopted a layer
approach system to map handling.

 Many people in the mapping sciences in Canada and US started in the 1970s writing
programs for drawing maps and producing maps using primitive printers and plotters.
They needed computers to produce maps in order to:

• 1. Automate cartographic task thus makes maps quickly

• 2. Increase cartographic accuracy and visual quality

• 3. Facilitate map making and updating when data are in digital format.

• 4. Facilitate analysis of data that demand interaction between

statistical analyses and mapping.

• 5. To minimize maps as a means of data storage

 Early map producing software includes SURFACE II, CAM and SYMAP but they
could not be called GIS software because they were designed for map display
purpose only.

 This software had capability of animating diagrams and producing automatic

hill shades.

 But mapping remained to be an important activity of the early software

(Brassel 1977).

 The second generation of the mapping software fulfilled the second functions
of GIS that is analysis.

 The software that was capable performing variety of application developed into
the true GIS software.
• A survey in 1974 by the International geographical union identified
several software in mapping science that had broad range of applications
• Another contribution was made Harvard Laboratory -While at
Northwestern University in 1964, Howard Fisher created one of the first
computer mapping software programs known as SYMAP.

 In 1965, he established the Harvard Laboratory for Computer Graphics.

While some of the first computer map-making software was created and
refined at the Lab, it also became a research center for spatial analysis
and visualization.

 Development of GIS software persisted in into the 1980s after the

development of Personal Computers (PC) in 1982.
 In the late 1970s, memory size and graphics capabilities were
improving.

 New computer cartography products were developed included

GIMMS (Geographic Information Making and Management Systems),
MAPICS, SURFACE, GRID, IMGRID, GEOMAP, and MAP.
3. 1980s: Commercialization and Academic Growth.

 The 1980s marked a shift toward desktop GIS with the development of software like
ARC/INFO by Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI). This era saw
increased accessibility and use of GIS in various fields

 This was the period GIS Software Commercialization. In the late 1980s, there
was an increasing range of GIS software vendors in this segment of GIS history.

 In 1969, Jack Dangermond—a member of the Harvard Lab—and his wife Laura
founded Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI)

 One of these GIS software vendors was ESRI – which is now the largest GIS software
company in the world. In 1981, ESRI launched ARC/INFO for minicomputers.
4. 1990s: Expansion and Integration

 Integration with other systems, such as remote sensing and GPS

(Global Positioning System), which enabled more accurate and real-
time data collection.

 GIS applications broadened beyond land management to fields like

urban planning, health, environmental monitoring, and transportation.

 User-friendly interfaces and GUI-based software helped expand GIS’s

accessibility.
5. 2000s: Internet and Open Source GIS

 The internet transformed GIS by enabling data sharing and online

mapping.

 The 2000s saw the rise of open-source GIS software, with projects
like Quantum GIS (QGIS) gaining popularity.

 Web mapping applications, such as Google Maps, brought GIS

functionality to a broader audience.
6. 2010s: Cloud GIS and Mobile Mapping

 The 2010s witnessed the emergence of cloud-based GIS platforms,

allowing users to store and analyze spatial data in the cloud.

 Mobile mapping applications became more prevalent, providing location-

based services on smartphones and tablets.

 GPS and the digital map bring geographic positioning to the palm of your
hand.

 With web-GIS the technology transcended from being Desktop software to

become a Cloud GIS.
 7. Modern GIS and AI Integration (2020s)
 Today, GIS is integrating with AI and machine learning to analyze
large datasets, automate spatial analysis, and produce predictive
models.

 GIS applications are being used in smart cities, climate change

analysis, and social justice mapping.

 Advances in 3D GIS, augmented reality, and virtual reality are also

pushing GIS capabilities further, allowing more immersive spatial
experiences.
 Conclusion

 GIS has evolved from basic mapping tools to sophisticated systems

capable of handling complex spatial data.

 Today, GIS is integral to various industries, including urban planning,

environmental science, healthcare, transportation, and disaster
management.

 The technology continues to advance, with ongoing developments in

data visualization, spatial analytics, and the integration of emerging
technologies.