CHAPTER 6

ELEMENTS OF
RESEARCH
DESIGN

Research Methods for Business – A Skill Building Approach

Uma Sekaran and Roger Bougie
 Topics to be Discussed
2

 Explain what is meant by a research

design.
 Develop an appropriate research design

for a study.
 Explain why a researcher might be

constrained to settle for less than the

“ideal” research design.
 Demonstrate awareness of the role of the

manager in the area of research design

The Steps for Research
Process
Steps of Research Process covered yet

 Develop a problem statement;

 Develop a research proposal;
 Conduct a critical review of the literature;
 Document your literature review; and
 (in deductive research) develop a theoretical
framework and hypotheses.

The next step is to design the research in such a

way that the required data can be gathered and
analyzed to answer the research questions to be
able to arrive at a solution for the problem due to
which the research project was conducted.
The Research Design
 A research design is a blueprint or plan
for the collection, measurement, and
analysis of data, created to answer
your research questions.
 The quality of a research design depends on
how carefully you choose the appropriate
design alternatives, taking into consideration
the specific objectives, research questions,
and constraints of the project, such as access
to data, time, and/or money.
The Research Design
Purpose of the study
 Exploration, an exploratory study is undertaken when not
much is known about the situation at hand, or no
information is available on how similar problems or
research issues have been solved in the past.
 Description, a descriptive study is undertaken in order to
ascertain (know) and be able to describe the charateristics
of the variables of interest in a situation. This study is also
designed to describe the relationships among variables,
without establishing a causal connection. (Correlational
study) (Non-directional hypotheses)
 Causal, a causal study is undertaken to determine the
cause and effect relationship between two variables. This
research is used mainly to identify the cause of the given
behavior. Using causal research, we decide what variations
take place in an independent variable with the change in
the dependent variable. (Directional hypotheses)
Elements/Components of Research
Design

 Research strategy
 Extent of researcher interference

 Study setting i.e. Location

 Unit of analysis i.e. population to be

studied
 Time horizon i.e. temporal aspects

Decisions related to these

elements are integral to
Research Design
Research strategies
 A strategy is a plan for achieving a certain goal.
 A research strategy will help you to meet your research
objective(s) and to answer the research questions of your
study.
 The choice for a particular research strategy will depend
on the research objective(s) and (the type of)
research questions of your study, but also on your
viewpoint on what makes good research and on
practical aspects such as access to data sources
and time constraints
 Research Strategies include
 Experiments
 Surveys
 Ethnography
 Case studies

Experiments
 Experiments are usually associated with a
hypothetico‐deductive approach to research.
 The purpose of an experiment is to study causal
relationships between variables.
 Experimental designs are less useful or appropriate for
answering exploratory and descriptive research questions.
 In an experiment, the researcher deliberately
changes the independent variable to study the
effect of this change on the dependent variable.
 For instance, changing the “reward system” to study
the effect on dependent variable “productivity”.
 Experimental designs are not always feasible in an
applied research context where the researcher
tries to solve a management problem.
Survey research
 A survey is a system for collecting
information from or about people to
describe, compare, or explain their
knowledge, attitudes, and behavior.
 It allows the researcher to collect quantitative and
qualitative data on many types of research questions.
 Surveys are commonly used in exploratory and
descriptive research to collect data about people,
events, or situations.
 Some surveys are one‐time surveys. Other surveys are
continuing, allowing the researcher to observe
changes over time.
 Survey instruments are self-administered
questionnaires, interviews and structured
observations.
Ethnography
 Ethnography is a strategy in which the researcher
“closely observes, records, and engages in
the daily life of another culture and then
writes accounts of this culture, emphasizing
descriptive detail.
 Ethnography involves immersion in the particular
culture of the social group that is being studied (such
as, for instance, bankers in the City of Lahore),
observing behavior, listening to what is said in
conversations, and asking questions.
 It aims to generate an understanding of the
culture and behavior of a social group from an
“insider’s point of view.”
 Ethnography and participant observation are
Case studies
 Case studies focus on collecting information about a
specific object, event or activity, such as a particular
business unit or organization.
 The idea behind a case study is that in order to obtain a
clear picture of a problem one must examine the real‐
life situation from various angles and perspectives
using multiple methods of data collection.
 A case study is a research strategy that involves an
empirical investigation of a particular contemporary
phenomenon within its real‐life context using multiple
methods of data collection.
 You might use just one complex case study where you
explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple
case studies to compare and illuminate different
aspects of your research problem.
Grounded Theory
 Grounded theory is a systematic set of
procedures to develop an inductively
derived theory from the data.
 Grounded theory (GT) is a research method
concerned with the generation of theory,
which is ‘grounded’ in data that has been
systematically collected and analysed. i.e.
the analysis and development of theories
happens after you have collected the data.
 It is a structured, yet flexible methodology.
This methodology is appropriate when little
is known about a phenomenon.
Action Research
 Action research is a research strategy aimed
at effecting planned changes.
 The researcher begins with a problem that is
already identified, and gathers relevant data to
provide a tentative problem solution. This solution
is then implemented, and the effects are then
evaluated, defined, and diagnosed, and the
research continues on an ongoing basis until the
problem is fully resolved.
 Thus, action research is a constantly evolving project
with interplay among problem, solution, effects or
consequences, and new solution.
 A sensible and realistic problem definition and
creative ways of collecting data are critical to action
Extent of researcher interference with
the study

 The extent of interference by the

researcher has a direct connection
with whether the study undertaken is
correlational or causal.
 Minimal: studying events as they

normally occur (Correlational)

 Manipulation and/or control and/or

simulation (Causal)
Study setting
 Business research can be done in the natural
environment where events proceed normally
(i.e., in noncontrived settings) or in
artificial or simulated, contrived settings.
 Non-contrived

 Exploratory and descriptive (correlational)

studies are invariably conducted in
noncontrived settings.
 Contrived
 Most causal studies beyond the least
possibility of doubt are done in contrived lab
settings.
 Study Setting
 A noncontrived setting with minimal researcher
interference
 Studies done in noncontrived settings are called field
studies.
 A noncontrived setting but with researcher
interference to a moderate extent
 Studies conducted to establish cause‐and‐effect relationships
using the same natural environment in which the subjects
under study (employees, consumers, managers, and the like)
normally function are called field experiments.
 A contrived setting with researcher interference
to an excessive degree
 Experiments done to establish a cause‐and‐effect relationship
beyond the possibility of the least doubt require the creation
of an artificial, contrived environment in which all the
extraneous factors are strictly controlled. Similar subjects are
chosen carefully to respond to certain manipulated stimuli.
Unit of analysis
 The unit of analysis for a study indicates what or who
should provide the data and at what level of aggregation
 Individuals, such as customers, employees, and owners
 Dyads – studying two person interactions, such as
supervisor–subordinate
 Groups – if the problem statement is related to group
effectiveness, then the unit of analysis will be at the group
level. Here we aggregate the individual data into group data
so as to see the differences among different groups
 Organizations (businesses and business units and
departments)
 Nations or countries
 As our research question addresses issues that
move away from the individual to dyads, and to
groups, organizations, and even nations, so also
does the unit of analysis shift from individuals to
Time horizon
 One-shot: cross-sectional
 A study in which data are gathered just
once, perhaps over a period of days or
weeks or months, in order to answer a
research question. Such studies are called
one‐shot or cross‐sectional studies.
 Longitudinal
 Research studies in which data on the
dependent variable are gathered at two or
more points in time to answer the research
question, are called longitudinal studies.
Time Horizon
 Longitudinal studies take more time and effort
and cost more than cross‐sectional studies.
 Well-planned longitudinal studies offer some
good insights.
 Longitudinal studies will certainly be necessary if a
manager wants to keep track of certain factors (e.g.,
sales, advertising effectiveness, etc.) over a period of
time to assess improvements, or to detect possible
causal connections.
 Experimental designs invariably are longitudinal
studies, since data are collected both before and
after a manipulation.
 Field studies can be longitudinal or cross‐
sectional in nature often because of the time,
 Qualitative Vs Quantitative
Research Method
Qualitative Quantitative
Methods include individual depth Methods include surveys,
interviews, both structured and questionnaires, structured
non-structured, focus groups, interviews and observations,
narratives, any kinds of measurements and other
documentary analysis, paper and equipment to collect numerical or
participant observation. measurable data.
Primarily inductive process used Primarily deductive process used
to formulate theory to test pre-specified concepts,
constructs or hypotheses that
make up a theory
Qualitative research aims at a The deductive nature of
holistic view of phenomena, and quantitative research implies a
more an inductive, exploratory focused approach where a small
approach. number of key variables are
researched
More subjective: describes a More objective: provides observed
problem or condition from the effects (interpreted by
 Qualitative Vs Quantitative
Research Method
Qualitative Quantitative
Unstructured or semi-structured Fixed response options
response options
No statistical tests Statistical tests are used for
analysis
Can be valid and reliable: largely Can be valid and reliable: largely
depends on the skill and detail of depends on the measurement
the researcher device and instrument used
Less generalized More generalized and population-
based
Exploratory in nature Conclusive in nature

Creates rich, specific and valid Makes reliable population-based

process data that contribute to and generalizable data that is
the in-depth understanding of a suited to establishing cause-and-
Mixed Methods
 Mixed methods research focuses on collecting,
analyzing, and mixing both quantitative and
qualitative data in a single study or series of
studies.
 Mixed methods research aims to answer research
questions that cannot be answered by “qualitative” or
“quantitative” approaches alone.
 Benefits
 It allows researchers to combine inductive and deductive
thinking, to use more than one research method to address
the research problem
 Solve a problem using different types of data
 Limitations
 This approach complicates the research design and therefore
requires clear presentation to allow the reader to sort out its
different components.
Triangulation in mixed
methods
 Triangulation requires that research is
addressed from multiple perspectives.
 The idea behind triangulation is that one can be
more confident in a result if the use of different
methods or sources leads to the same results.
 Several kinds of triangulation are possible:
 Method triangulation: using multiple methods of data
collection and analysis.
 Data triangulation: collecting data from several sources
and/or at different time periods.
 Researcher triangulation: multiple researchers collect
and/or analyze the data.
 Theory triangulation: multiple theories and/or
perspectives are used to interpret and explain the data.
TRADE-OFFS AND COMPROMISES

 The researcher determines the appropriate decisions to

be made in the study design based on the research
perspective, the research objective(s), research
questions, the extent of rigor desired, and practical
considerations.
 Sometimes, because of the time and costs involved, a
researcher might be constrained to settle for less than
the “ideal” research design.
 For instance, the researcher might have to conduct a field
study rather than an experimental design or choose a
smaller rather than a larger sample size thus sub-optimizing
the research design decisions and settling for a lower level of
scientific rigor because of resource constraints.
 This tradeoff between rigor and practical considerations
should be a deliberate and conscious decision made by
the researcher.