Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Program: B.Tech
Course Code: TCS703
Course Name: Computer Networks -II
 SYLLABUS
Unit - I
Routing Algorithms: Introduction, global vs decentralized routing, The Link State(LS) Routing
Algorithm, The Distance Vector (DV) Routing Algorithm, Hierarchical Routing, Routing in the
Internet: RIP, OSPF, BGP; Introduction to Broadcast and Multicast Routing

Unit - II
Link Layer and Local Area Networks: Introduction to Link Layer and its services, Where Link Layer is
implemented?, Error detection and correction techniques: Parity checks, Checksumming, CRC;
Multiple Access protocols: Channel Partitioning, Random Access (Slotted Aloha, Aloha, CSMA),
Taking Turns; Link Layer Addressing: MAC addresses, ARP, Ethernet, CSMA/CD, Ethernet
Technologies, Link Layer Switches, Switches vs Routers, VLANS

Unit – III
Multimedia Networking: Introduction, Streaming Stored Audio and Video, Real Time Streaming
Protocol(RTSP), Making the Best of the Best Effort Services, Protocols for Real Time Interactive
Applications: RTP, RTCP, SIP, H.323; Providing multiple classes of service.

Unit – IV
Generalized forwarding and SDN Match , Action, Open flow, SDN Control Plane , SDN controller and
SDN control Application , Open flow protocol, Data and control plane Interaction , SDN : PAST and
FUTURE.

Unit – V
Network Programming: Sockets-Address structures, TCP sockets, creating sockets, bind, listen,
accept, fork and exec function, close function; TCP client server: Echo server, normal startup,
terminate and signal handling, server process termination, crashing and rebooting of server, host
shutdown; Elementary UDP sockets: UDP echo server, lack of flow control with UDP
 Routing
 Packet go from source to destination via
routers.
 Router consults the routing table.
 Routing table can be static [does not
change automatically] or dynamic
[changes automatically].
 Routing protocols are needed to create
the routing tables dynamically.
 A routing protocol is a combination of
rules and procedures that lets routers in
the internet inform one another of
changes. It allows routers to share
whatever they know about the internet
or their neighborhood.
3
4
 Unicasting

 In unicast routing, there is only one source

and only one destination.
 When a router receives a packet, it
forwards the packet through only one of
its ports (the one belonging to the
optimum path) as defined in routing table.
Discard the packet, if there is no route.
5
 Interior and Exterior routing
 Autonomous System: Group of networks and
routers under the authority of a single
administration.
 Routers inside an autonomous system is referred
to as interior routing.
 Routing between autonomous systems is referred
to as exterior routing.

6
 Autonomous systems

 Solid lines show the communication between

routers that use interior routing protocols.
 Broken lines show the communication between
routers that use an exterior routing protocols.
7
 Metric of different protocols
 Metric is the cost assigned for passing through a
network.

The total metric of a particular router is equal to the sum
of the metrics of networks that comprise the route.

A router chooses the route with smallest metric.
 RIP (Routing Information Protocol): Cost of passing
each network is same; it is one hop count.

If a packet passes through 10 networks to reach the
destination, the total cost is 10 hop counts.
 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): Administrator can
assign cost for passing a network based on type of
service required.

OSPF allows each router to have more than one routing
table based on required type of service.

Maximum throughput, minimum delay
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): Criterion is the
policy, which is set by the administrator.

8
 Routing Information Protocol
(RIP)
 RIP is based on Distance vector routing.
 Distance vector routing
 Sharing knowledge about the entire autonomous system:
Each router periodically shares its knowledge about the
entire autonomous system with its neighbours.

Sharing only with neighbours through all its interfaces.

Sharing at regular intervals: 30 seconds.
 Routing table

Has one entry for each destination network of which the
router is aware.
 Each entry has destination network address, the shortest
distance to reach the destination in hop count, and next
router to which the packet should be delivered to reach
its final destination.
 Hop count is the number of networks that a packet
encounters to reach its final destination.

9
Table 21.1 A distance vector routing table
Hop Next
Destination Other information
Count Router

163.5.0.0 7 172.6.23.4

197.5.13.0 5 176.3.6.17

189.45.0.0 4 200.5.1.6

115.0.0.0 6 131.4.7.19

10
 RIP Updating Algorithm
Receive: a response RIP message
1. Add one hop to the hop count for each advertised
destination.
2. Repeat the following steps for each advertised destination:
1. If (destination not in the routing table)
1. Add the advertised information to the table.
2. Else
1. If (next-hop field is the same)
1. Replace entry in the table with the advertised one.
2. Else
1. If (advertised hop count smaller than one in the
table)
1. Replace entry in the routing table.
3. Return.
11
Example of updating a routing table

12
 Initial routing tables in a small autonomous system

 When a router is added to a network, it initializes a

routing table for itself, using its configuration file.
 The table consists only the directly attached
networks and the hop counts, which are initialized to
1.
 The next-hop field, which identifies the next router,
is empty.
13
 Final routing tables for Figure 21.5

 Each routing table is updated upon receipt of

RIP messages using the RIP updating algorithm.
14
 OSPF
 Open Shortest Path First
 Special routers called autonomous
system boundary routers are
responsible for dissipating
information about other autonomous
systems into the current system.
 OSPF divides an autonomous system
into areas.

15
Autonomous System

16
 Areas in an Autonomous System
 Area is a collection of networks, hosts, and routers
all contained within an autonomous system.
 Routers inside an area flood the area with routing
information.
 Area border routers: Summarize the information
about the area and send it to other routers.
 Backbone area [Primary area]: All the areas inside
an autonomous system must be connected to the
backbone. Routers in this area are called as
backbone routers. This area identification number is
0.
 If, due to some problem, the connectivity between a
backbone and an area is broken, a virtual link
between routers must be created by the
administration to allow continuity of the functions of
the backbone as the primary area. 17
 OSPF
 Metric

Administrator can assign the cost to each route.

Based on type of service (minimum delay, maximum
throughput, and so on)
 Link state routing

Sharing knowledge about the neighbourhood: Each router
sends the state of its neighbourhood to every other router in
the area.

Sharing with every other router: By flooding, a process
whereby a router sends its information to all its neighbours
(through all its output ports). Each neighbour sends the
packet to all its neighbours, and so on. Every router that
receives the packet sends copies to each of its neighbours.
Eventually, every router (without exception) has received a
copy of the same information.

Sharing when there is a change; Only to its neighbours.

Each router should have the exact topology of the internet at
every moment.

From this topology, a router can calculate the shortest path
between itself and each network. 18
 Types of Links

 Point-to-point
 Connects two routers without any other
router or host in between.
 Directly connected routers using serial line.
 Only one neighbour.

19
 Transient link

A network with several routers attached to it.

Each router has many neighbours.
 Lot of advertisements about their neighbours.
 One of the routers in the network has two duties: true
router and designated router because we can not connect
each router to every other router through one single
network. Each router has only one neighbour, the
designated router (network). On the other hand, the
designated router (network) has five neighbours.
 Designated router represents a network. There exists a
metric between each node to the designated router but
there is no metric from the designated router to any other
node.

20
 Stub Link

 Stub
 A network that is connected to only one router.
 The data packets enter the network through this single
router and leave the network through this same router.
 Virtual
 When the link between two routers is broken, the
administration may create a virtual link between them,
using a longer path that probably goes through several
routers.

21
Example of an internet & Graphical representation

22
 Types of LSAs

 To share information about their neighbours, each

entity distributes Link State Advertisements (LSAs).
 Router Link
 A true router uses this advertisement to announce
information about all its links and what is at the other side
of the link (neighbours).

23
 Network link

 A designated router, on behalf of the transient

network, distributes this type of LSA packet.
 The packet announces the existence of all the
routers connected to the network.

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 Summary link to network

 A router must also know about the networks

outside its area, and the area border routers
can provide this information.
 An area border router is active in more than
one area.
 It receives router link and network link
advertisements and creates a routing table for
each area.
25
 Summary link to AS boundary router

 If a router inside an area wants to send a

packet outside the autonomous system, it
should first know the route to an autonomous
boundary router; the summary link to AS
boundary router provides this information.

26
 External link

 A router inside an autonomous system wants to

know which networks are available outside the
autonomous system; the external link
advertisement provides this information.
 The AS boundary router floods the autonomous
system with the cost of each network outside
the autonomous system, using a routing table
created by a exterior routing protocol.
27
 Every router in the same area has the same link state database.
 Dijkstra algorithm
 Calculates the shortest path between two points on a network, using
a graph made up of nodes and edges.
 Algorithm divides the nodes into two sets: tentative and permanent.
It chooses nodes, makes them tentative, examines them, and if they
pass the criteria, makes them permanent.

Dijkstra Algorithm
1. Start with the local node (router): the root of the tree.
2. Assign a cost of 0 to this node and make it the first permanent node.
3. Examine each neighbor node of the node that was the last
permanent node.
4. Assign a cumulative cost to each node and make it tentative.
5. Among the list of tentative nodes
1. Find the node with the smallest cumulative cost and make it
permanent.
2. If a node can be reached from more than one direction
1. Select the direction with the shortest cumulative cost.
6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 until every node becomes permanent.
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 Shortest-path calculation

 The number next to each node represents the cumulative cost from
the root node.
 Note that if a network can be reached through two directions with
two cumulative costs, the direction with the smaller cumulative
cost is kept, and the other one is deleted.

29
 Shortest-path calculation

 Internet Help http://students.ceid.upatras.gr/~papagel/project/kef5_7_1.htm

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Table 21.2 Link state routing table for router A

Network Cost Next Router Other Information

N1 5 C

N2 7 D

N3 10 B

N4 11 D

N5 15 C

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 BGP
 Border Gateway Protocol
 Inter-autonomous system routing protocol.
 BGP is based on a routing method called path
vector routing.
 Why D.V and L.S are not good enough?

In D.V:

Sometimes we don’t want the route with
smallest hop count as the preferred route
[like, avoiding non-secure routes].

D.V routing information provides only the hop
count and not the path that leads to that
destination.

A router that receives a distance vector
advertisement packet may be fooled if the
shortest path is actually calculated through
the receiving router itself.
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 Why D.V and L.S are not good
enough?
 Link State routing

Internet is too big for this routing method

To use link state routing for the whole
internet would require each router to have a
huge link state database.

It would also take a long time for each
router to calculate its routing table using the
Dijkstra algorithm
 Path Vector routing

Each entry in the routing table contains the
destination network, the next router, and
the path to reach the destination.

The path is usually defined as an ordered list
of autonomous systems that a packet should
travel through to reach the destination.
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Table 21.3 Path vector routing table

Network Next Router Path

N01 R01 AS14, AS23, AS67

N02 R05 AS22, AS67, AS05, AS89

N03 R06 AS67, AS89, AS09, AS34

N04 R12 AS62, AS02, AS09

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 Path Vector Messages

 Autonomous boundary routers that participate in

path vector routing advertise the reach ability of
the networks in their own autonomous systems
to neighbor autonomous boundary routers.
 Concept of neighborhood here is the same as the
one described in the RIP or OSPF protocol.
 Two autonomous boundary routers connected to
the same network are neighbours.
35
 Path Vector Messages
 Each router that receives a path vector message
verifies that the advertised path is in agreement
with its policy (a set of rules imposed by the
administrator controlling the routes). If it is, the
router updates its routing table and modifies the
message before sending it to the next neighbour.
 The modification consists of adding its AS number
to the path and replacing the next router entry
with its own identification.
 Loop prevention: Path vector avoids this problem
by checking the path to see if its own AS is in the
list.
 Policy Routing: Check the AS in the path list
against a policy. If it is against the policy, the
router can ignore that path and that destination. It
does not update its routing table with this path,
and it does not send this message to its
neighbors. So, routing table entry is not based on
metric but on policy. 36
 Path Attributes

 Path is a list of attributes

 Each attribute gives some information about the
path
 List of attributes help the receiving router make
a better decision when applying its policy.
 Two categories: well-known and optional

Well-known: Every BGP router should recognize

Mandatory

ORIGIN: source of routing information [RIP, OSPF, …]

AS_PATH

NEXT_HOP

Discretionary: Not required to be included in every update
message.

Optional: Need not be recognized by every router

Transitive: One that must be passed to the next router by
the router that has not implemented this attribute

Non-transitive: One that should be discarded if the
receiving router has not implemented it.
37
 Types of BGP Messages

 Open: To create a neighborhood relationship

 If the neighbor accepts the neighborhood relationship, it
responds with a keep-alive message, which means that a
relationship has been established between two routers
 Update message is used by router to withdraw destinations
that have been advertised previously, announce a router to a
new destination, or do both.
 Keep-alive: Routers exchange this message regularly (before
their hold time expires) to tell each other that they are alive.
 Notification: Sent by a router whenever an error condition is
detected or a router wants to close the connection.

38
 Multicast Routing
 One to many; Source is unicast address,
but the destination is a group address
(Class D)
 When a router receives a packet, it may
forward it through several of its ports
 Router may discard the packet if it is not
in the multicast path.
 Flooding: A router forwards a packet out of
all its port except the one from which the
packet came. Flooding provides
broadcasting, but it also creates loops. A
router will receive the same packet over
and over from different ports. Several
copies of the same packet are circulated,
creating traffic jams.
39
Multicasting

40
IGMP
 Internet Group Management Protocol
 Group Management
 IGMP is not a multicasting routing protocol

 IGMP is a protocol that manages group

membership.
 In any network, there are one or more

multicast routers that distribute multicast

packets to hosts or other routers.
 IGMP helps the multicast router create and

update the list of groups in the network for

which there is at least one loyal member.

41
Figure 21.24 IGMP message types

42
 Figure 21.25 IGMP message format

 Type: 8 –bit; Defines the type of message


General or special query: 0x11

Membership report: 0x16

Leave report: 0x17
 Maximum response time

8-bit; Defines the amount of time in which a query must be
answered; Value is in tenths of a second
 Checksum: 16-bit field carrying checksum calculated over
8-byte message.
 Group address: 0 for general query message. The value
defines the groupid (multicast address of the group) in
special query, the membership report and leave report
messages.

43
Table 21.4 IGMP type field

Type Value

General or special query 0x11 or 00010001

Membership report 0x16 or 00010110

Leave report 0x17 or 00010111

44
 Figure 21.26 IGMP operation
 IGMP operates locally.
 A multicast router connected to a network has a list of multicast addresses
of the groups for which the router distributes packets to groups with at least
one loyal member in that network.
 For each group, there is one router which has the duty of distributing the
multicast packets destined for that group.
 A host or multicast router can have membership in a group. When a host
has membership, it means that one of its processes (an application
program) receives multicast packets from some group. When a router has
membership, it means that a network connected to one of its other
interfaces receives these multicast packets.
 In both cases, the host and the router keep a list of groupids and relay their
interest to the distributing router.

 Routers R1 & R2 may

be distributors for
some of the groups
[given in router R] in
other networks, but not
on this network.
45
 Figure 21.27 Membership report

 A host or a router can join a group.

 A host maintains a list of processes that have
membership in a group.
 When a process wants to join a new group, it
sends its request to the host. The host adds the
name of the process and the name of the
requested group to its list.
 If this is the first entry for this particular group,
the host sends a membership report message. If
this is not the first entry, there is no need to send
the membership report since the host is already a
member of the group; it already receives multicast
packets for this group.
46
 Router maintains a list of groupids that shows
membership for the networks connected to
each interface. When there is new interest in a
group for any of these interfaces, the router
sends out a membership report. This report is
sent out of all interfaces except the one from
which the new interest comes.
 Membership report is sent twice, one after the
other within a few minutes. If the first one is
lost or damaged, the second one replaces it.

47
 Figure 21.28 Leave report

 Hosts send a leave report when there is no process interested

in a specific group.
 When a multicast router receives a leave report, it cannot
immediately purge that group from its list because the report
comes from just one host or a router.
 Multicast router generates a specific query with specific groupid
No Response
to identify whether the group can be purged or not. If no
response within the specified response time, the group can be
purged from the list.
48
Monitoring membership
 Multicast router monitors all the hosts or routers in a LAN to
see if they want to continue their membership in a group.
 What happens: A case where a only alive host shuts down
without sending the leave report.
 Router periodically (by default, every 125sec) sends a general
query message. In this message, the group address field is set
to 0.0.0.0. This means the query for membership continuation
is for all groups in which a host is involved, not just one.
 Query message is sent by only one router (normally called
query router) to prevent unnecessary traffic.
 The router expects reply for each group within the maximum
response time of 10 sec.
 When a host or router receives the general query message, it
responds with a membership report if it is interested in a
group. If there is a common interest (two hosts, for example,
are interested in the same group), only one response is sent
for that group to prevent unnecessary traffic.

49
Figure 21.29 General query message

No Response

50
 Delayed Response
 When a host or router receives a query message, it
does not respond immediately; it delays the
response.
 Each host or router uses a random number to create
a timer, which expires between 1 and 10 seconds.
 The expiration time can be in steps in 1s or less.
 Each group in the list has its own timer.
 Each host or router waits until its timer has expired
before sending a membership report message.
 As the membership report is a broadcast, the waiting
host or router receives the report and knows that
there is no need for duplication of report message by
many hosts.

51
Multicast Trees
 Objectives of Multicasting are

Each member of the group should receive one, and only one, copy
of the multicast packet. Receipt of multiple copies is not allowed.

Nonmembers must not receive a copy.

There must be no loops in routing; that is, a packet must not visit a
router more than once.

The path traveled from the source to each destination must be
optimal (the shortest path).
 Source-Based Tree

A single tree is made for each combination of source and group.
MOSPF, DVMRP, PIM-DM.
 Group-Shared Tree

Each group in the system shares the same tree.

Tree changes when the group changes but remains the same
when the group remains the same.

Group determines the tree and not the source.

Approaches to find multicast tree: Steiner tree [only theoretical],
rendezvous-point tree.

CBT, PIM-SP

52
MBONE
 Only a small fraction of Internet routers are multicast
routers.
 A multicast router may not find another multicast router
in the neighborhood to forward the multicast packet.
 Tunneling helps to connect the multicast routers
logically. Routers enclosed in broken circles are capable
of multicasting. To enable multicasting, we make a
multicast backbone (MBONE) out of these isolated
routers, using the concept of tunneling.

53
 Figure 21.32 MBONE

 Logical tunnel is established by encapsulating

the multicast packet inside a unicast packet.
 The intermediate (nonmulticast) routers
forward the packet as unicast routers and
deliver the packet from one island to another.
 DVMRP supports both MBONE and tunneling.

54
 Figure 21.33 Multicast routing protocols

 DVMRP

Source-based routing protocol

Formation of shortest-path tree

No router knows the complete route for a particular
destination. Each router knows from which port to
send out a unicast packet on the destination address.

Optimal tree is determined while the packet travels.
When a router receives a packet, the router forwards
the packet through some of the ports, based on the
source address, and contributes to the formation of
the tree; the rest of the tree is made by other down-
stream routers.
55
 This protocol should accomplish the following:
 Must prevent the formation of loops
 Must prevent duplications; no network receives more
than one copy. In addition, the path traveled by a
copy is the shortest path from the source to the
destination.
 Must provide for dynamic membership.
 Reverse Path Forwarding
 A router forwards the copy that has traveled the
shortest path from the source to the router.
 To find if the packet has traveled the shortest path,
RPF uses the unicast routing table of RIP.
 It pretends that it needs to send a packet to the
source and finds if the port given by the routing table
is the same from which the packet has arrived.

56
 Figure 21.34 Reverse path forwarding

 In RPF, the router forwards only the packets

that have traveled the shortest path from the
source to the router; all other copies are
discarded. RPF prevents the formation of
loops.
57
 Figure 21.35 RPF versus RPB

 In RPF, looping is avoided but does not guarantee the receipt of

only one copy. This is because the packet is forwarded based on
source address and not on destination address.
 To eliminate duplication, we must define only one parent router
for each network. A network can receive a multicast packet from a
particular source only through a designated parent router.
 For each source, the router sends the packet only out of these
ports for which it is the designated parent. This policy is called
reverse path broadcasting (RPB). RPB guarantees that the packet
reaches every network and that every network receives only one
copy.
 Select the router with the shortest path to the source as the
designated parent router.
 RPB creates a shortest-path broadcast tree from the source to
each destination. It guarantees that each destination receives one
and only copy of the packet.
58
Reverse Path Multicasting [RPM]
 RPB does not multicast the packet, it broadcasts
it.
 To be efficient, the multicast packet must reach
only those networks that have active members for
that particular group.
 In DVMRP, the first packet is broadcast to every
network. The remaining packets is based on
pruning and grafting. This is called as RPM.
 Pruning: Procedure that stops the sending of
messages from an interface.
 Grafting: Procedure that resumes the sending of
multicast messages from an interface.
 Pruning and Grafting are done by IGMP.
 RPM adds pruning and grafting to RPB to create a
multicast shortest-path tree that supports
dynamic membership changes.
59
Figure 21.36 RPF, RPB, and RPM

60
MOSPF
 Multicast Open Shortest Path First
 Uses multicast link state routing to create
source-based trees.
 First, the tree is a least-cost tree (using a
metric) instead of a shortest-path tree.
 Second, the tree is made all at once instead of
gradually (the tree is said to be premade,
prepruned, and ready to be used).
 Least-Cost Trees
 Each router knows the entire topology of the
network.
 Each router uses Dijkstra’ algorithm to create a least-
cost trees that has the router as the root and the rest
of the routers as nodes of the tree.
 Least cost trees in MOSPF is different for each router.
61
 Figure 21.37 Unicast tree and multicast tree

 In multicast routing, we need one tree for each source-group

pair, and the root must be the source.
 This is done using the database by asking the router to use
Dijkstra’s algorithm to create a tree with the source as the
root.
 Three problems exist:
 Algorithm uses unicast addresses but the tree we need requires
group addresses.
 Membership can change frequently.
 Applying Dijkstra algorithm for each multicast packet is very
expensive timewise.

62
 Solution to the problems
 Add a new link state update packet to associate the
unicast address of a host with the group address or
addresses the host is sponsoring. It is called a group
membership LSA.

We make a tree that contains all the hosts belonging to
a group, but we use the unicast address of the host in
the calculation.
 Link state packets can also solve the second problem
if they are sent whenever there is a change in the
membership.
 The router can calculate the least-cost trees on
demand (when it receives the first multicast packet).
In addition, the tree can be saved in the cache
memory for future use by the same source-group
pair. MOSPF is a data-driven protocol.

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CBT
 Core-Based Tree
 Group-shared protocol that uses a core as the root of the tree.
 Autonomous system is divided into regions, and a core (center
router or rendezvous router) is chosen for each region.
 Formation of tree

After rendezvous router is selected, every router is informed of
the unicast address of the selected router.

All routers sends a unicast join message that passes through all
routers that are located between sender and rendezvous router.

Each intermediate router extracts the necessary information from
the message, such as the unicast address of the sender and the
port through which the packet has arrived, and forwards the
message to the next router in the path.

When the rendezvous router has received all join messages from
every member of the group, the tree is formed. Now every router
knows its upstream and downstream router.

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 Figure 21.38 Shared-group tree with rendezvous router

 If a router wants to leave the group, it sends a

leave message to its upstream router. The
upstream router removes the link to that
router from the tree and forwards the message
to the upstream router, and so on.

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DVMRP and CBT
MOSPF
Tree is made from the Tree is made from the
root leaves
The tree is first made There is no tree in the
(broadcasting) and then beginning; the joining
pruned. (grafting) gradually
makes the tree.

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 Figure 21.39 Sending a multicast packet to the rendezvous router

 A multicast packet is send from source to rendezvous router and it

forwards the message to all members of the group.
 Packet from source to members of group as below:
 Source [may be or may be part of the tree] encapsulates the multicast
packet inside a unicast packet with the unicast destination address of
the core and sends it to the core. This part of delivery is done using a
unicast address; the only recipient is the core router.
 Core decapsulates the unicast packet and forwards it to all ”interested”
ports, which is part of the tree and is not pruned by IGMP
 Each router that receives the multicast packet, in turn, forwards it to all
interested ports.

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PIM (Protocol Independent Multicast)
 PIM-DM & PIM-SM are two independent
multicast routing protocols, which are unicast-
protocol-dependent.
 PIM-DM (Dense Mode)

Unicast protocol dependent

Used when there is a possibility that each router is
involved in multicasting

Use of broadcast is justified because almost all routers
are involved in the process.

Source-based routing protocol that uses RPF and
pruning/grafting strategies for multicasting

Operation is like DVMRP but unicast protocol
independent.

It assumes that the autonomous system is using a
unicast protocol and each router has a table that can
find the outgoing port that has an optimal path to a
destination. This unicast protocol can be a distance
vector protocol (RIP) or link state protocol (OSPF).
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 PIM-SM (Sparse mode)

Used when there is a slight possibility that each router
is involved in multicasting.

Use of protocol that broadcasts is not justified.

Protocol like CBT that uses a group-shared tree is
more appropriate.

A group-shared routing protocol that has a
rendezvous point (RP) as the source of the tree.

Like CBT but does not require acknowledgement from
a join message. In addition, it creates a backup set of
RPs for each region to cover RP failures.

PIM-SM can switch from group-shared tree to source-
based tree strategy if necessary. This can happen if
there is a dense area of activity far from the RP.
 Multicasting is applied in distributed databases,
information dissemination, distance learning,
and particularly multimedia communications.
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