Unit 4: Measurement, Scaling and Sampling LH 12

Variables and their types; Nature of measurement; Scale construction

for attitude measurement; Scales commonly used in business research;
Validity and reliability of measurement; Sources of measurement
problems; Concept of population, sample and sampling, Factors
affecting the size of the sample, The sampling process; Types of
samples – probability and non-probability sampling; Sampling and non-
sampling errors.
Variables and their types
• A variable is, as the name applies, something that varies. Age, gender, export, income
and expenses, family size, capital expenditure, class grades, blood pressure readings, eye
color, and vehicle type are all examples of variables because each of these properties
varies or differs from one individual to another.
• Variables are things you measure, manipulate and control in statistics and research. All
studies analyze a variable, which can describe a person, place, thing or idea. A variable's
value can change between groups or over time. For example, if the variable in an
experiment is a person's eye color, its value can change from brown to blue to green
from person to person.
Types of variables
Researchers organize variables into a variety of categories, the most common of
which include:
1. Independent variables
An independent variable is a singular characteristic that the other variables in your
experiment cannot change. Age is an example of an independent variable. Where
someone lives, what they eat or how much they exercise are not going to change
their age. Independent variables can, however, change other variables. In studies,
researchers often try to find out whether an independent variable causes other
variables to change and in what way.
2. Dependent variables
A dependent variable relies on and can be changed by other components. A
grade on an exam is an example of a dependent variable because it depends on
factors such as how much sleep you got and how long you studied. Independent
variables can influence dependent variables, but dependent variables cannot
influence independent variables. For example, the time you spent studying
(dependent) can affect the grade on your test (independent) but the grade on
your test does not affect the time you spent studying.
When analyzing relationships between study objects, researchers often try to
determine what makes the dependent variable change and how
3. Intervening variables
An intervening variable, sometimes called a mediator variable, is a theoretical
variable the researcher uses to explain a cause or connection between other study
variables—usually dependent and independent ones. They are associations instead
of observations. For example, if wealth is the independent variable, and a long life
span is a dependent variable, the researcher might hypothesize that access to
quality healthcare is the intervening variable that links wealth and life span.
4. Moderating variables
A moderating or moderator variable changes the relationship between dependent
and independent variables by strengthening or weakening the intervening variable's
effect. For example, in a study looking at the relationship between economic status
(independent variable) and how frequently people get physical exams from a doctor
(dependent variable), age is a moderating variable. That relationship might be
weaker in younger individuals and stronger in older individuals.
5. Control variables
Control or controlling variables are characteristics that are constant and do not
change during a study. They have no effect on other variables. Researchers might
intentionally keep a control variable the same throughout an experiment to
prevent bias. For example, in an experiment about plant development, control
variables might include the amounts of fertilizer and water each plant gets. These
amounts are always the same so that they do not affect the plants' growth.
6. Extraneous variables
Extraneous variables are factors that affect the dependent variable but that the
researcher did not originally consider when designing the experiment. These
unwanted variables can unintentionally change a study's results or how a
researcher interprets those results. Take, for example, a study assessing whether
private tutoring or online courses are more effective at improving students'
Spanish test scores. Extraneous variables that might unintentionally influence the
outcome include parental support, prior knowledge of a foreign language or
socioeconomic status.
7. Quantitative variables
Quantitative variables are any data sets that involve numbers or amounts. Examples might
include height, distance or number of items. Researchers can further categorize quantitative
variables into two types:
 Discrete: Any numerical variables you can realistically count, such as the coins in your wallet
or the money in your savings account.
 Continuous: Numerical variables that you could never finish counting, such as time.
8. Qualitative variables
Qualitative, or categorical, variables are non-numerical values or groupings. Examples might
include eye or hair color. Researchers can further categorize qualitative variables into three types:
 Binary: Variables with only two categories, such as male or female, red or blue.
 Nominal: Variables you can organize in more than two categories that do not follow a particular
order. Take, for example, housing types: Single-family home, condominium, tiny home.
 Ordinal: Variables you can organize in more than two categories that follow a particular order.
Take, for example, level of satisfaction: Unsatisfied, neutral, satisfied.
9. Confounding variables
A confounding variable is one you did not account for that can disguise another
variable's effects. Confounding variables can invalidate your experiment results by
making them biased or suggesting a relationship between variables exists when it
does not. For example, if you are studying the relationship between exercise level
(independent variable) and body mass index (dependent variable) but do not
consider age's effect on these factors, it becomes a confounding variable that
changes your results.
10. Composite variables
A composite variable is two or more variables combined to make a more complex
variable. Overall health is an example of a composite variable if you use other
variables, such as weight, blood pressure and chronic pain, to determine overall
health in your experiment.
Nature of measurement

• Measurement is a process through which observations are translated in to numbers.

The nature of measurement process produces the numbers.
• These numbers determine the interpretation that can be made from them and the
statistical procedures that can be meaningfully used with them.
• A scale is used for two purposes; firstly to indicate a measuring instrument and secondly
to indicate the systematized numerals of the measuring instrument.
• There are four scales of measurement in statistics which are nominal scale, ordinal
scale, interval scale, and ratio scale.
• Scales of measurement are defined as the ways to collect and analyze data. It depends
on the purpose of the study and the type of data (qualitative or quantitative) on which
the selection of an appropriate scale is being dependent.
The four scales of measurement in statistics are listed below:
 Nominal .Ordinal .Interval .Ratio

Nominal Scale of Measurement

• A nominal scale of measurement is used for qualitative data. It does not give any
numerical meaning to the data. Using the nominal scale of measurement, the data can
be classified but cannot be added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided. It can cover a wide
variety of qualitative data. Some of the situations where nominal measurement scale
can be used are given below:
• In collecting data on the eye color of people
• Classifying people into categories like male/female, working-class
• Some of the properties of the nominal scale of measurement are given below:
• It can categorize variables but does not put them in any order.
• It does not show any numerical value.
• It is used for qualitative data.
Ordinal Scale of Measurement
• The ordinal scale of measurement groups the data into order or rank. It contains
the property of nominal scale as well, which is to classify data variables into
specific labels.
• And in addition to that, it organizes data into groups though it does not have
any numerical value.
• For example, the study of people's satisfaction with a company's product on a
scale of #1 - Very happy, #2 - satisfactory, #3 - neutral, #4 - unhappy, and #5 -
extremely dissatisfied.
This measurement scale can be used for the following purposes:
 Ranks of players in a race.
 Data collection on variables such as hottest to coldest, richest to poorest,
etc.
 Data on people's satisfaction with any product, person, or government.
Some of the properties of the ordinal measurement scale are listed below:
 It displays the order or rating of the variables.
 It does not give any numerical value to the data. So, it is also used for
Interval Scale of Measurement
• The interval scale of measurement includes those values that can be
measured in a specific interval, for example, time, temperature, etc.
It shows the order of variables with a meaning proportion or
difference between them. For example, on a temperature scale, the
difference between 20 °C and 30 °C is the same as the difference
between 50°C ad 60°C. It is an example of an interval measurement
scale.
• On the other hand, the difference between the scores of the first two
rankers in a race and the two runner-ups will be different, which is
an example of an ordinal scale.
Some of the properties of the interval scale of measurement are listed
below:
 It includes the properties of both nominal and ordinal scales.
 It shows meaningful divisions between variables.
 The difference between the variables can be presented in numerical
terms.
 It includes variables that can be added or subtracted from each
Ratio Scale of Measurement
• The ratio scale is the most comprehensive scale among others. It
includes the properties of all the above three scales of measurement.
The unique feature of the ratio scale of measurement is that it
considers the absolute value of zero, which was not the case in the
interval scale.
• When we measure the height of the people, 0 inches or 0 cm means
that the person does not exist. On the interval scale, there are values
possible on both sides of 0, for example, temperature could be
negative as well. While the ratio scale does not include negative
numbers because of its feature of showing absolute zero. An example
of the ratio measurement scale is determining the weight of people
from the following options: less than 20 kgs, 20 - 40 kgs, 40 - 60 kgs,
60 - 80 kgs, and more than 80 kgs.
Some of the properties of the ratio scale of measurement are listed
below:
 It is used for quantitative data.
 It shows the absolute value of zero which means if the value is 0, it's
nothing.
 The variables can be added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided. In
addition to these, calculation of mean, median, and mode is also
possible
Properties
with this scale.
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
 it doesn't include negative numbers because of the feature of true
zero value.
Labeled variables ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Look at the table ✖below showing

Meaningful order of variables ✔
the properties
✔
of all four scales
✔
of
measurement.
Measurable difference ✖ ✖ ✔ ✔

The absolute value of zero ✖ ✖ ✖ ✔