IIT Bombay

DESE

Solar Thermal Energy Conversion

Lecture #13

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 1
 IIT Bombay
Transitivity and reflectivity DESE



sin 1 n2 n

sin  2 n1 n


2 2
 sin( 2  1 )   tan( 2  1 ) 
 I    II  
 sin( 2   )
1   tan( 2   )
1 

 I   II
Total Reflectivity:  Total transmitivity:  1  
2

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 2
 IIT Bombay
Transitivity and reflectivity DESE

1
0.9
Reflectivity , Transmitivity

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4 Refractive index: 1.52
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incident angle

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 3
 IIT Bombay
Transmission: multiple reflections at the top cover DESE

 (1- (1- (1-

1- (1- (1-

(1-  (1-

 (1-



(1- 2(1- 4(1-

 r  (1   )  (1   )   (1 
2 2 2 4
 )  
2 1 
1   

1   k / cos 
  a  r  a 
1     a e
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 4
 IIT Bombay
Transmission: multiple reflections at the top cover DESE

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Transmitivity

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of top cover

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 5
 IIT Bombay
Transmission: multiple reflections at the top cover DESE

1 0
0.9 10
0.8 20
0.7
30
Transmitivity

0.6
40
0.5
50
0.4
60
0.3
0.2 70

0.1 80
0 90
1 3 5 7 9
No. of cover (@ 1 mm)

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 6
 IIT Bombay
Transmission: multiple reflections at the top cover DESE

90
0.9- 1
1 0 80
0.8- 0.9
0.9 10
70
0.8 0.7- 0.8

Incident angle [ o ]
20
0.7
30 0.6- 0.7 60
0.6
40 0.5- 0.6 50
Transmitivity

0.5
50
0.4 0.4- 0.5 40
60
0.3
70
0.3- 0.4 30
0.2
80 0.2- 0.3 20
0.1
0 90 0.1- 0.2
10
1 3 5 7 9 0- 0.1
No. of cover (@ 1 mm)
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Thickness of cover [mm]

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 7
 IIT Bombay
Transmission: multiple reflections at the top cover DESE
90

80

70

Incident angle
60

50

40

0.45
30

0.55
0.75

0.65
20
0.85

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

No. of top cover [@ 1mm

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 8
 IIT Bombay
Transmission: multiple reflections at the top cover DESE

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Transmitivity

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No. of top cover [@ 1mm]

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 9
 IIT Bombay
Transmission: multiple reflections at the top cover DESE

 (1- (1- (1-

1- (1- (1-

(1-  (1-

 (1-



(1- 2(1- 4(1-


  a (1   )2  a 3 2 (1   )2   a 5  4 (1   )2   a
1   2

1 a 
2 2
 

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 10
 IIT Bombay
: multiple reflections at the top cover DESE

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Transmitivity

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incident angle
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 11
 IIT Bombay
: multiple reflections at the top cover DESE

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Transmitivity

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incident angle
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 12
 IIT Bombay
: multiple reflections at the top cover DESE

1
0.9
0.8

1 
0.7
Transmitivity

0.6
0.5
r 
0.4
0.3 1   
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incident angle
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 13
 IIT Bombay
: multiple reflections at the top cover DESE

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Transmitivity

0.6
0.5
 k / cos 
 a e
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incident angle
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 14
 IIT Bombay
: multiple reflections at the top cover DESE

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Transmitivity

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
  a  r
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incident angle
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 15
 IIT Bombay
: multiple reflections at the top cover DESE

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Transmitivity

 a 1    2
0.6
0.5

 
0.4
2 2
0.3
0.2
1 a 
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incident angle
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 16
 IIT Bombay
: multiple reflections at the top cover DESE

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Transmitivity

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incident angle
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 17
 IIT Bombay
: multiple reflections DESE

from the bottom of the top cover

  d

d d2

 d d2

2 
   (1   )  d   (1   )  d2  
1  (1   )  d
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 18
 IIT Bombay
: multiple reflections DESE

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Transmitivity

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incident angle

2 
   (1   )  d   (1   )  d2  
1  (1   )  d
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 19
 IIT Bombay
: analysis DESE


Comparison between  &
1  (1   )  d
0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
d=0.14
0.3 =0.94
0.2

0.1

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 20
 IIT Bombay
Energy balance DESE

I G AP
Eincident 

Radiative loss Qconv  AhT

Convective loss
Qrad  AT 4 _

Qcond . ( watt ) _ AK
T AIR
x
Conductive loss

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 21
 IIT Bombay
Flat plate collector DESE

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 22
 IIT Bombay
Flat plate collector DESE

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 23
 IIT Bombay
Absorber plate DESE

Absorber Fluid
plate passage

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 24
 IIT Bombay
Influences on collector performance DESE

• Absorber plate
• Fluid passage (tubes)
• Glass cover
• Insulated container
• Radiation
• direct
• diffuse
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 25
 IIT Bombay
Selective surface DESE

9% 45% 46%

Incoming
Absorption

Out going
8000

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 26
 IIT Bombay
Absorber surface DESE

Materials absorptivity emissivity

Black nickel on nickel plated steel 0.95 0.07
Black chrome on nickel plated steel 0.95 0.09
Black chrome on galvanised steel 0.95 0.16
Black chrome on copper 0.95 0.14
Black copper on copper 0.88 0.15
CuO on nickel .81 0.17
CuO on aluminum 0.93 0.11
PbS crystal on on aluminum 0.89 0.20
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 27
 IIT Bombay
Solar Water Heater (SWH) DESE

Flat plate
collector

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 28
 IIT Bombay
Importance of specific heat DESE

Name Specific heat

(heat Amount of heat required to raise
capacity) the temperature of matter
kJ/kg-oC

Fresh water 4.18 Q mC p (T final  Tinitial )

Sea water 3.93
Vegetable oil 1.67 Cp – heat capacity ((kJ/kg-oC)
Milk 3.93
Amount of heat required to raise the
Copper 0.39 temperature of a unit mass by a degree
Aluminum 0.90 centigrade
Air 1.01
Potatoes 3.43
Chicken, Eggs 3.2

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 29
 IIT Bombay
Solar thermal energy conversion efficiency DESE

qu  Ap S  ql
qu – rate of useful heat transferred to working fluid
S- absorbed radiation by absorber plate
Ap – aperture area of the absorber plate
ql – rate of heat loss

Useful heat gain qu

 
Incident radiation Ac I T

I T I b rb  I d rd  ( I b  I d )rr
α =Absorptivity (metal)-
S I b rb ( ) b  I d rd  ( I b  I d )r( ) d transmittivity (glass cover)

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 30
 IIT Bombay
Estimation of losses DESE

ql U l Ap (TAve , plate  Tamb )

Tave,plate – Average temperature of absorber plate

Tamb – Ambient temperature

S- incident solar flux absorbed in absorber plate

Ul – overall loss coefficient (incorporating all losses ) (2 to 10 W/m2-K)

ql – rate of heat loss
Assignment #7: A flat plate collector’s plate has a average temperature of 75 oC in
an ambient temperature of 35 oC. The total instantaneous radiation on the collector
surface is 700 W/m2 of which only 75% gets absorbed. If the overall loss coefficient
of the collector is 9 W/m2-K, calculate the rate of heat loss and instantaneous
efficiency of the collector.
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 31
 IIT Bombay
Summary of losses DESE

• Reflection from top cover

•Top surface
•Bottom surface
Incident radiation (15%)
•Absorption by top cover
• Emission from the absorber (5%)
After conversion
• Top loss (Conduction+Convection + Radiation)
25%
• Side loss (Conduction+Convection) +13%
• Bottom loss (Conductive) +2%
= 40%
Overall efficiency: ~ 40%
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 32
 IIT Bombay
Evacuated tube collector DESE

Water-in-glass: It consists of all-glass vacuum tubes, inserted directly into

a storage tank, with the water in direct contact with absorber surface
- this type of tube can be used with low pressure systesm, as tubes
themselves can not withstand high pressure,

Heat pipe type: a Copper heat pipe inserted in the vacuum tube (heat
pipe has very high thermal conductivity, heat is taken and given by the
fluid is as latent heat, high efficiency,
- heat pipe acts as thermal diode allowing heat to flow in one direction
only.

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 33
 IIT Bombay
Evacuated tube collector DESE

Length (nominal) 1500mm /1800mm

Outer tube diameter 58mm
Evacuated Tube Basic Specifications
Inner tube diameter 47mm
Glass thickness 1.6mm
Thermal expansion 3.3x10-6 oC
Material Borosilicate Glass
Absorptive Coating Graded Al-N/Al
Absorptance >92% (AM1.5)
Emittance <8% (80oC)
Vacuum P<5x10-3 Pa
Stagnation
>200oC
Temperature
Borosilicate glass
Heat Loss <0.8W/ ( m2oC )
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 34
 IIT Bombay
Evacuated collector: flat plate DESE

Selective Selective
surface surface

Fluid
conduit
Fluid
conduit

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 35
 IIT Bombay
Evacuated collector: concentric DESE

Selective
surface

Fluid
conduit

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 36
 IIT Bombay
Evacuated collector: concentration DESE

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 37
 IIT Bombay
Evacuated collector: concentration DESE

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 38
 IIT Bombay
Evacuated Tube collector DESE

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 39
 IIT Bombay
Evacuated Tube collector DESE

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 40
 IIT Bombay
Collector: comparison DESE

System Useful Temperature Efficiency

radiation range (oC) (%)
Flate plate hot water Global 40 to 60 40
heating
Evacuated tube water Global 50 to 80 50
heating
Evacuated tube with other Direct 100 to 200 50 -60
fluid and low concentration
ration

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 41
 IIT Bombay
Active solar thermal energy conversion DESE

The design of solar thermal energy converter depends on the

end use temperature required

Flat plate receiver (no

light concentration)
1-D concentration
•(Line focus cylindrical parabolic)

2-D concentration
•(Point focus paraboloid)
Concentration wing reflection
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 42
 IIT Bombay
Concentrator: reflector wings DESE

C
O
L
L
E
C
T
O
R

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 43
 IIT Bombay
Concentrator: reflector wings DESE

C
O
L
L
E
C
T
O
R

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 44
 IIT Bombay
Cooking using thermal energy DESE

1. Cooking by – boiling - Temperature – 100 oC

2. Cooking by – frying, roasting, baking - Temperature – ~ 200 oC

Amount of heat energy required (boiling method)

-Most heat is required to bring the water till boiling point, than heat to maintain the
temperature (10 to 30%), till food is cooked
- heating till boiling (25%), water vaporization (35%), convective losses (45%)
- Specific heat of water is considered to estimate the heat requirement

Q: How much heat is required to cook the half kg of rice in copper vessel and in
steel vessel?
Note: Conductivity of steel is low, high convection losses
A LPG gas burner typically provide 1kW power, which can bring 2 liters of water to boiling in
10 minutes
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 45
 IIT Bombay
Solar cooker: reflection DESE

black coating
reflector

glass cover

thermal
vessel
insulator

Size of box and mirror: ~ 0.5 m2

Efficiency: 20 to 50%

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 46
 IIT Bombay
Materials properties for solar cooker DESE

Specifications
System
Comments
Components Material Properties

Reflector- Glass Reflectivity should be high to Mirrors are more reflective but
Flat Mirror or Aluminum ensure the increase in costlier and fragile
Metal foil temperature of cooking
utensil.
Box GI Enough to maintain stability and Low cost materials like cardboard
a) Outer Box Aluminum Sheet FRP Insulation can be used
b) Inner Box Aluminum or copper Coated with non-toxic black paint Paint must be non-toxic when dry
(high heat conductivity) to absorb the heat
Transperent Cover Glass or Plastics Glass traps the infrared radiation, Glass cover should be well sealed to
avoid heat loss from top prevent heat loss from the gap
Insulation Wool, cotton, feathers, or space between the outer and inner Must be free from volatile materials.
even crumpled box including bottom of the
newspapers tray must be insulated to
reduce heat losses from the
cooker
Cooking Utensils Aluminum, copper or Must be coated with black material Lightweight, shallow pot
Stainless steel to absorb more heat must be used,

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 47
 IIT Bombay
Concentrator: Trapezoidal design DESE

Reflector

Absorber Top cover

Fluid conduit Reflector

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 48
 IIT Bombay
Parabolic trough concentrator DESE

Heat exchanger

Concentrator

Absorber tube

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 49
 IIT Bombay
Parabolic trough concentrator: tracking DESE

=0

N
=90
=-90 Rotation=15 o per hr

Inclination angle = Hour angle ()

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion

SSlide 50
 IIT Bombay
Parabolic trough concentrator: tracking DESE

Z=0o

Z=90o
Inclination angle = Zenith angle
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion
ESlide 51
 IIT Bombay
Parabolic trough concentrator: tracking DESE

Mode I: E-W, horizontal, & 

Mode II: E-W, horizontal, & z
Mode III: N-S, horizontal, & 
Mode IV: N-S, axis Aperture surface
Mode V:Continuous tracking so that radiation is normal to the
aperture surface

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 52
 IIT Bombay
Solar Concentrator: Fresnel lens DESE

Fresnel lens

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 53
 IIT Bombay
2-D concentrator DESE

Tracking conditions
s=  & = z

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 54
 IIT Bombay
Concentrator geometry DESE

Aperture (W): The plane at the opening of the concentrator through which
solar radiation enters the concentrator
Concentration ratio (C): This is the ratio of the aperture to the area of the
absorber pate.
Intercept factor: This is the ratio of the incident radiation on the absorbober
plate after concentration to the actual incident radiation crosses the aperture
Acceptance angle: This is the measurement of the deviation in the incident
angle from the normal to the aperture area.

1 1
For line focus Cm , 2 D  and point focus Cm , 3 D  2
sin  a sin  a

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 55
 IIT Bombay
Central receiving power plant DESE

Central receiver

•Tower height- 80m

• Reflectic area- 71000 sq. m
• 1800 heliostat
• Steam as fluid
• 10MW

Rankine cycle
system

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 56
 IIT Bombay
DESE

Solar-1, 10 MW plant

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 57
 IIT Bombay
Pay back period DESE

• Energy pay back period

• Money pay back period

total energy required for the system

Energy pay back period =
annual energy conversion by the system

total investment
Money pay back period =
annual income from fuel saving

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 58
 IIT Bombay
Pay back period DESE

• Payback period depends on which fuel of cooking you are replacing with solar
cooker, e.g. LPG, electric, coal etc.
• LPG energy content is (12.6kWh/kg*13.5kg/cylinder = 612360 kJ/cylinder)
• Heat energy required for cooking a single person is about 900 kJ
• Box type solar cooker can cook about 40% of food for 4 people, cost of box type
solar cooker is about 2000 Rs.

• Find out the money payback period?

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 59
 IIT Bombay
DESE

Water heating

Pressure
cooking

Fraying

Ironing
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 60
 IIT Bombay
Cooking by Scheffler disk DESE

Scheffler disk (parabolic disk) is used, requires tracking, focuses light into kitchen,
secondary reflector are used

Scheffler disc
(south facing)
Kitchen

sun-tracking
arrangement

secondary reflectors

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 61
 IIT Bombay
Cooking by Scheffler disk DESE

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 62
 IIT Bombay
Cooking by Scheffler disk DESE

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 63
 IIT Bombay
DESE

Cocking vessels

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 64
 IIT Bombay
Cooking by parabolic disk DESE

Solar Steam Cooking System for 15000

people (worlds largest)

Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams (TTD)

Andhra Pradesh, India
Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 65
 IIT Bombay
DESE

Cocker installed in Saidham

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 66
 IIT Bombay
Concentrated collector: comparison DESE

Name of system Contributing Temp (oC) Efficiency

radiation (%)
Cylindrical parabolic Direct 100 to 400 50 - 60
collector
Parabolic point focus Direct Up to 1000 70-80

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 67
 IIT Bombay
Performances: Flat plate collector DESE

40 %

30 %

12:00

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 68
 IIT Bombay
Performances: Flat plate collector DESE

100 %
Relative insolation

0.9 
0.8 
90 %
0.7 

80 %
0

70 %
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Latitude
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 69
 IIT Bombay
Performances: Parabolic concentrator DESE

90

I
Incident angle

II
60
III

30
IV

0 V

6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00

Time
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 70
 IIT Bombay
Closed loop system DESE

Used when large amount of water heating is required Cold water tank

Insulated piping Temp

Water for
Collector array use
Temp Storage
tank
controller

Auxiliary
heater
pump

There can also be a open loop system

Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 71
 IIT Bombay
Closed loop system DESE

Low temperature system, medium temperature, high temperature systems

turbine

Heat
exchanger

Flat plate
collector Condenser
Storage
Storagetank
tank

Working fluid in
pump
Rankine cycle
pump

•Low temperature system, water as working fluid low efficiency, how much low?
•In medium temperature parabolic trough with other working fluid, higher efficiency
•Storage requirement can be avoided using solar pond concept
Autumn Semester Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 72
 IIT Bombay
DESE

Photovoltaic energy conversion

Lecture #16

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 73

 IIT Bombay
DESE

• What parameter distinguishes a metal from

semiconductor? A semiconductor from insulator?

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 74

 IIT Bombay
DESE

Continuous band gap

•Principle of solar PV energy conversion

(light to photo-voltage conversion)
Separation of opposite
charges results in
potential difference

Separated band gap

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 75

 IIT Bombay
Many atoms-1 DESE

Electron
•When atoms are
energy
brought together to
form a solid various
interaction occurs
between the atom.

•Splitting of energy
One atom Two atoms Many atoms in a levels occurs due the
crystal Pauli’s Exclusion
Principle

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L3-

Slide 76
 IIT Bombay
Lecture-3 DESE

Many atoms-2: Energy band formation

As the distance between the
atom approaches equilibrium
inter-atomic distance for a given
E material, energy bands forms
n
e
r
g Fig: Schematic indicating how the
y discrete energies allowed to
electrons in an isolated atom split
up into bands of allowed energy
Inter-atomic Distance when a number of similar atom
brought together in a crystal

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L3-

Slide 77
 IIT Bombay
Semiconductors DESE

• Elemental semiconductor

Part of periodic table

II III IV V VI
B C(6)
Al Si(14) P S
Zn Ga Ge(32) As Se
Cd In Sb Te

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L5-

Slide 78
 IIT Bombay
Compound semiconductors DESE

• Elemental semiconductors: Si, Ge

• Compound semiconductors: GaAs, InP
• Ternary semiconductors: AlGaAs, HgCdTe
• Quaternary semiconductors: InGaAsP, InGaAlP

Elemental IV Binary III-V Binary II-VI

Compounds
Si SiGe AlP CdTe
Ge SiC GaAs CdS
As InP ZnS
GaP CdSe
Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L5-
Slide 79
 IIT Bombay
Band gap types DESE

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L20-

Slide 80
 IIT Bombay
Band gap types DESE

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 81

 IIT Bombay
Band gap types DESE

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 82

 IIT Bombay
Direct band gap DESE

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 83

 IIT Bombay
Direct band gap DESE

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion Slide 84

 IIT Bombay
Charge Carriers in Semiconductors DESE

• At 0K temperature Si behaves like an insulator due to empty

conduction band

•As the temperature rises above 0K, conduction band electrons

increases due to thermal excitation across the band gap

Ec

Electron Eg Hole
EHP
Ev

At 0K At Temp > 0K

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L5-

Slide 85
Charge carriers IIT Bombay
DESE

• Empty state in VB is called a hole, contributes in the

process of conduction. A hole can be regarded as a free
particle with positive charge.
•Conduction band electron and corresponding valence
band hole is together known as electron-hole pair (EHP).
• Si atom density is about 5x1022 atoms/cm3 while at room
temperature there are about 1010 EHP/cm3.

• Two types of charge carriers: Holes and electrons

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L5-
Slide 86
Intrinsic Semiconductor (Si) IIT Bombay
DESE

• Comment: Si is first purified to very high degree, 99.9999999%,

before making devices in it.
Si Intrinsic : when no
e -
impurities are
h+ added to the
material

At the equilibrium
Recombination rate, ri = gi, Generation rate
(electron/cm3) n = p (hole / cm3) n(Si)=1010 EHP/cm3

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L5-

Slide 87
 IIT Bombay
Extrinsic semiconductor DESE

•Extrinsic semiconductor: when desired impurities are added to

obtain the desired change in the conductivity
• The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is called
Doping
Si
P-type
h+ semiconductor
Al

•Addition of impurities with three valence electrons results in available emp

energy state, a hole
• B, Al, In, Ga (Acceptor impurities)
•Holes are in the majority  majority carrier concentration
12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L5-
Slide 88
P-type semiconductor IIT Bombay
DESE

Ec
Eg
Ea Ea
Ev

T = 0K T  300K
• Acceptor energy level is very close (energetically) to valence
band edge, Ex: Ea-Ev = 0.03 to 0.06 eV for Si
•Acceptance of a valence band electrons by an acceptor level and the
resulting creation of holes (partially empty band)
•Conduction of current is possible in a partially empty energy band,
but not in completely filled energy band
12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L5-
Slide 89
N-type semiconductor IIT Bombay
DESE

Si
N-type
Sb semiconductor
e-

•Addition of impurities with five valence electrons results an extra

electron available current conduction
• P, As, Sb (donor impurities)
• Electron are in the majority  majority carrier concentration

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L6-

Slide 90
N-type semiconductor IIT Bombay
DESE

Ec
Ed Ed

Ev

Eg
T = 0K T  300K
• Donor energy level is very close (energetically) to conduction
band edge, Ex: Ec-Ed = 0.03 to 0.06 eV for Si

• An electron at the donor level is excited to the conduction band

• In conduction band there are large number of energy levels are
available, electron can hop from one level to another
12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L6-
Slide 91
P-N junction energy bands IIT Bombay
DESE

ND - NA

ND

x
-NA
P-side N-side
Ec EF
Ei
EF
Ev
Fermi level
remains
EF Ec invariant at
Ei the
Ev equilibrium
12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L12-
Slide 92
 IIT Bombay
Space charge region DESE

 
 q( p  N d  n  N a )
Time, t=0 + - + - + - + - + - + - + - + -
+ - + - + - + - + - + - + - + -
Fixed charges - + - +
+ - + - + - + - + - + -
Mobile charges + - + - + - + - + - + - + - + -

N-side P-side

t>0 - +
+ - + - + - + - + - + - + -
+ - + - + - + - + - + - + -
+ - + - + - + - + - + - + -
+ - + - + - + - + - + - + -

12/21/24
Space charge region
Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L12-
Slide 93
 IIT Bombay
Junction at Thermal Equilibrium DESE

•Net current is zero, J=0

Ec
EF •Jn=0, Jn,drift+Jn,diff=0
Ei •Jp=0, Jp,drift+Jp,diff=0
Ev

Particle flow Current flow

Hole Diffusion Hole Diffusion
Hole Drift Hole Drift
Electron Diffusion Electron Diffusion
Electron Drift Electron Drift
12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L12-
Slide 94
 IIT Bombay
P-N J forward bias
n DESE

• Forward bias is applied such that the potential barrier across the
junction is reduced, =V0-V(applied)
•Depletion region width decreases
Negligible voltage drop (neutral
Negligible voltage drop
region, high doping)
(ohmic contact)

P N

V
V Most of the voltage applied
P N x appears across the depletion
region
12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L14-
Slide 95
 IIT Bombay
P-N J forward bias
n DESE

In
(V0-V)

Ec

EFp EFn
V
Ei
= EFn-EFp
E
Direction
v
of current
Hole Diffusion
Ip Hole Drift
Electron Diffusion
Electron Drift
12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L14-
Slide 96
 IIT Bombay
P-N J under reverse bias
n DESE

•Reverse bias is applied such that the potential barrier across the
junction is increased, =V0 + V(applied)
• Depletion region width increases

In
Direction of current
V0 + V
EFp Hole Diffusion

Ec Hole Drift
EFn Electron Diffusion
Ei Electron Drift
Ev
Ip
12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L14-
Slide 97
 IIT Bombay
Comparison of voltage bias DESE

P N P N P N

V=0 V>0, Vf V<0

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L14-

Slide 98
 IIT Bombay
Diode Current: Qualitative Solution DESE

• Total current crossing the diode is sum of the diffusion and drift
current
• Under equilibrium there is no current flow
• In forward bias current flow mainly due to diffusion of carriers, which
increases exponentially
•In reverse bias both electron and hole diffusion components are
negligible due to large barrier. Current is relatively small (due to
generation of carrier) and it independent of voltage.

At equilibrium
I = I (diffusion) – I (generation) = 0 when V = 0
12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L15-
Slide 99
Diode Current: Qualitative Solution IIT Bombay
DESE

• In forward bias, the probability that a carrier can diffuse across junction
is proportional to exp(qVf / kT)

• In reverse bias, the probability that a carrier can diffuse across

junction is proportional to exp(-qVr / kT)

Forward bias current, diffusion current = Igen* e(qVf / kT)

 Current in the reverse bias, drift current = Iequi=Igen=I0

Total current = I (forward) – I (reverse)
( qV / kT ) I
I  I gen e  I gen Reverse
I (diffu.) saturation
qV / kT current
I  I 0 (e  1) I (gen.)
V

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L15-

Slide 100
 IIT Bombay
Solar cell DESE

The basic steps in the operation of a solar cell are:

• Generation of light-generated carriers;

• Collection of the light-generated carries to generate a current;
• Generation of a voltage across the solar cell; and
• Dissipation of power in the load and in parasitic resistances.

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L19-

Slide 101
 IIT Bombay
PN Junction under illumination DESE

Time t=0
Ec
EF
Ec
Ei
Ev
Ei
Ev
Current flow
Hole Diffusion Ln W Lp
Hole Drift
Electron Diffusion
• Shining of light will generate
electron-hole pair throughout the
Electron Drift
semiconductor
12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L19-
Slide 102
Junction under illumination IIT Bombay
DESE

P-type N-type
Carrier will die
Time t>0

+ Ec

Ei
-
Ev

Pile up of carriers, responsible Ln W Lp

ξ Carrier will die, will
for generation of forward voltage
not participate in
(Photovoltaic effect)
Direction of the light current
generated current
12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L19-
Slide 103
 IIT Bombay
Junction under illumination DESE

•Generation of voltage in P-N junction

radiation

P-type
+
- N-type

Ln W Lp
Direction of current flow under
illumination

•P-N behaves like a forward bias P-N

junction under illumination

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L19-

Slide 104
 IIT Bombay
Solar Cell I-V Equation DESE

Total current for solar cell under illumination can be given as:

qV / kT
I total  I 0 ( e  1)  I L
Where IL is light generate current or photo current

12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L20-

Slide 105
 IIT Bombay
Solar Cell I-V Curve DESE

I • A P-N junction in the dark

I (diffu.)
consumes power, as it can be
operated in 1st or 3rd quadrant
V
I0 • Effect of solar radiation on the I-V
curve

• Under illumination solar cell can be

operated in the fourth quadrant
corresponding to delivering power
to the external circuit

• Current in the illuminated solar cell is negative, flows against the

conventional direction of a forward diode
12/21/24 Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion L20-
Slide 106
 IIT Bombay
Solar Cell I-V Curve DESE

I Solar cell parameters

Isc • Voc - open circuit voltage,
Pm
Im
• Isc - short circuit current,
• Pm - maximum power point
V • I , V – current and voltage
Vm Voc m m

Usual I-V plot of solar cell – at maximum power point

Current is shown on positive y - • FF – Fill factor
axis
• η – Efficiency
• Rs – series resistance

12/21/24 • R – shunt resistance

Lecture 13: EN 601: Solar thermal energy conversion
sh L20-
Slide 107