21EES101T-ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICSENGINEERING
EEE-UNIT 2
Unit-2-Electronics
Overview of Semiconductors, Diodes and Transistors, Introduction to JFET
and MOSFET. Construction and working of power devices-SCR, BJT,
MOSFET, IGBT -Switching Characteristics of SCR- Types of power
converters- Natural and force commutation, Linear voltage Regulator,
SMPS
Realize the logic expression using basic logic gates, Combinational logic
design-Sum of Product form (SOP) and Product of Sum (POS) form,
Minterm and Maxterm, Karnaugh Map (K-Map) representation of logical
functions, Two variables K-Map, Three variables K-Map, Four variables K-
Map. Introduction to FPGA.
Practice on realization of logical expression, combinational circuits, PCB
design, soldering and testing
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OVERVIEW OF SEMICONDUCTORS
• Depending on their conductivity, materials can be
classified into three types as conductors,
semiconductors and insulators. Conductor is a
good conductor of electricity. Insulator is a poor
conductor of electricity. Semiconductor has its
conductivity lying between these two extremes.
Energy Band of Semiconductor
In terms of energy band shown in Fig., the
valence band is almost filled (partially filled) and
conduction band is almost empty.

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A comparatively smaller electric field (smaller than required for
insulator) is required to push the electrons from the valence
band to conduction band. At low temperatures, the valence
band is completely filled and the conduction band is completely
empty. Therefore a semiconductor virtually behaves as an
insulator at low temperature. However even at room
temperature some electrons crossover to the conduction band
giving conductivity to the semiconductor. As temperature
increases, the number of electrons crossing over to the
conduction band increases and hence electrical conductivity
increases. Hence a semiconductor has negative temperature
coefficient of resistance. 3
Classifications of Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductor: A pure
semiconductor is called intrinsic
semiconductor.
Extrinsic Semiconductor: Due to the poor
conduction at room temperature, the intrinsic
semiconductor, as such, is not useful in the
electronic devices. Hence the current
conduction capability of the intrinsic
semiconductor should be increased. This can
be achieved by adding a small amount of
impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor, so
that it becomes impurity semiconductor or
extrinsic semiconductor. This process of
adding impurity is known as doping.
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N-type Semiconductor: A small amount of
pentavalent impurities such as arsenic, antimony or
phosphorus is added to the pure semiconductor
(germanium or silicon crystal) to get N-type
semiconductor. Thus, the addition of pentavalent
impurity (antimony) increases the number of electrons
in the conduction band thereby increasing the
conductivity of N-type semiconductor. As a result of
doping, the number of free electrons far exceeds the
number of holes in an N-type semiconductor. So
electrons are called majority carriers and holes are
called minority carriers
P-type Semiconductor: A small amount of trivalent
impurities such as aluminium or boron is added to the
pure semiconductor to get the P-type semiconductor.
The number of holes is very much greater than the
number of free electrons in a P-type material, holes are
termed as majority carriers and electrons as minority
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carriers.
 THEORY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

In a piece of semiconductor material, if one half is doped by

P-type impurity and the other half is doped by N-type
impurity, a PN junction is formed. The plane dividing the two
halves or zones is called PN junction. As shown in Fig., the N-
type material has high concentration of free electrons while
P-type material has high concentration of holes. Therefore at
the junction there is a tendency for the free electrons to
diffuse over to the P-side and holes to the N-side. This
process is called diffusion.

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As the free electrons move across the junction from N-type to P-
type, the donor ions become positively charged. Hence a positive
charge is built. on the N-side of the junction. The free electrons
that cross the junction uncover the negative acceptor ions by
filling in the holes. Therefore a net negative charge is established
on the P-side of the junction. This net negative charge on the P-
side prevents further diffusion of electrons into the P-side.
Similarly, the net positive charge on the N-side repels the holes
crossing from P-side to N-side. Thus a barrier is set up near the
junction which prevents further movement of charge carriers, i.e.
electrons and
holes. This is called potential barrier or junction barrier V0. V0 is
0.3 V for germanium and 0.72 V for silicon. The electrostatic field
across the junction caused by the positively charged N-type
region tends to drive the holes away from the junction and
negatively charged P-type region tends to drive the electrons
away from the junction. Thus the junction region is depleted to
mobile charge carriers. Hence it is called depletion layer.

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Under Forward Bias Condition
When positive terminal of the battery is connected to
the P-type and negative terminal to the N-type of the
PN junction diode, the bias applied is known as
forward bias. Under the forward bias condition, the
applied positive potential repels the holes in P-type
region so that the holes move towards the junction
and the applied negative potential repels the
electrons in the N-type region and the electrons move
towards the junction. Eventually when the applied
potential is more than the internal barrier potential,
the depletion region and internal potential barrier
disappear.

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V–I Characteristics of a Diode under Forward
Bias
For VF > V0, the potential barrier at the junction
completely disappears and hence, the holes cross the
junction from P-type to N-type and the electrons cross
the junction in the opposite direction, resulting in
relatively large current flow in the external circuit.

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Under Reverse Bias Condition
When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to
the P-type and positive terminal of the battery is
connected to the N-type of the PN junction, the bias
applied is known as reverse bias. Under applied reverse
bias, holes which form the majority carriers of the P-side
move towards the negative terminal of the battery and
electrons which form the majority carrier of the N-side are
attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery.
Hence the width of the depletion region which is depleted
of mobile charge carriers increases. Thus the electric field
produced by applied reverse bias, is in the same direction
as the electric field of the potential barrier. Hence, the
resultant potential barrier is increased, which prevents the
flow of majority carriers in both directions. Therefore,
theoretically no current should flow in the external circuit.
But in practice, a very small current of the order of a few
microamperes flows under reverse bias.
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V–I Characteristics of a Diode under Reverse Bias
For large applied reverse bias, the free electrons from the N-
type moving towards the positive terminal of the battery
acquire sufficient energy to move with high velocity to dislodge
valence electrons from semiconductor atoms in the crystal.
These newly liberated electrons, in turn, acquire sufficient
energy to dislodge other parent electrons. Thus, a large number
of free electrons are formed which is commonly called as an
avalanche of free electrons. This leads to the breakdown of the
junction leading to very large reverse current. The reverse
voltage at which the junction breakdown occurs is known as
breakdown voltage.

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12
APPLICATIONS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE
RECTIFIERS, CLIPPERS, CLAMPERS ect..
RECTIFIERS-Rectifier is defined as an electronic device used for
converting ac voltage into dc voltage
Half-wave Rectifier
It converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using only one
half of the applied ac voltage. The rectifying diode conducts during
one half of the ac cycle only. Figure shows the basic circuit and
waveforms of a half wave rectifier.

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 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR [BJT]
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal
semiconductor device in which the operation depends on the
interaction of both majority and minority carriers and hence the
name Bipolar. It is used in amplifier and oscillator circuits, and as
a switch in digital circuits. It has wide applications in computers,
satellites and other modern communication systems.

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TRANSISTOR BIASING
Usually the emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-
base junction is reverse biased. Due to the forward bias on the
emitter-base junction an emitter current flows through the base into
the collector. Though, the collector-base junction is reverse biased,
almost the entire emitter current flows through the collector circuit.

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Commutation
Commutation is the process of turning off a conducting thyristor. There are two
methods for commutation viz. natural commutation and forced commutation.
Natural Commutation
In natural commutation, the source of commutation voltage is the supply source itself. If
the SCR is connected to an AC supply, at every end of the positive half cycle, the anode
current naturally becomes zero (due to the alternating nature of the AC Supply). As the
current in the circuit goes through the natural zero, a reverse voltage is applied
immediately across the SCR (due to the negative half cycle). These conditions turn OFF
the SCR.
This method of commutation is also called as Source Commutation or AC Line
Commutation or Class F Commutation. This commutation is possible with line
commutated inverters, controlled rectifiers, cyclo converters and AC voltage regulators
because the supply is the AC source in all these converters.

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Forced Commutation
In case of DC circuits, there is no natural current zero to turn OFF the SCR. In
such circuits, forward current must be forced to zero with an external circuit
(known as Commutating Circuit) to commutate the SCR. Hence the name,
Forced Commutation.
This commutating circuit consist of components like inductors and capacitors
and they are called Commutating Components. These commutating
components cause to apply a reverse voltage across the SCR that immediately
bring the current in the SCR to zero.
Depending on the process for achieving zero current in the SCR and the
arrangement of the commutating components, Forced Commutation is
classified into different types. They are:
Class A – Self Commutation by Resonating the Load
Class B – Self Commutation by Resonating the Load
Class C – Complementary Commutation
Class D – Auxiliary Commutation
Class E – Pulse Commutation
This commutation is mainly used in chopper and inverter circuits.

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1-AC to DC Converters
1A-Diode Rectifiers: This rectifier circuit changes applied ac input voltage into a
fixed dc voltage. Either a single-phase or three-phase ac signal is applied at the
input. These are mainly used in electric traction and in electrochemical processes
like electroplating along with in battery charging and power supply. These are also
used in welding and UPS related services.
1B-Phase Controlled Rectifiers: Unlike diode rectifiers, phase-controlled
rectifiers are designed to convert a fixed value of ac signal voltage into a variable
dc voltage. Here line voltage operates the rectifier hence these are sometimes
known as line commutated ac to dc converters. Similar to diode rectifiers, here
also the applied ac signal can be a single-phase or three-phase ac signal. Its major
applications are in dc drives, HVDC systems, compensators, metallurgical and
chemical industries as well as in excitation systems for synchronous machines.
2-DC to DC Converters
The converters that convert the dc signal of fixed frequency present at the input
into a variable dc signal at the output are also known as choppers. Here the
achieved output dc voltage may have a different amplitude than the source
voltage. Generally, power transistors, MOSFETs, and thyristors are the
semiconductor devices used for their fabrication. The output is controlled by a low
power signal that controls these semiconductor devices from a control unit.

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Here forced commutation is required to turn off the semiconductor device. Generally, in low
power circuits power transistors are used while in high power circuits thyristors are used.
Choppers are classified on the basis of the type of commutation applied to them and on the
basis of the direction of power flow. Some major uses of choppers are in dc drives, SMPS,
subway cars, electric traction, trolley trucks, vehicles powered by battery, etc.
3-DC to AC Converters
The devices that are designed to convert the dc signal into ac signal are known as inverters.
The applied input is a fixed dc voltage that can be obtained from batteries but the output
obtained is variable ac voltage. The voltage and frequency of the signal obtained are of
variable nature. Here the semiconductor device i.e., the thyristor is turned off by using either
line, load, or forced commutation.
Thus, it can be said that by the use of inverters, a fixed dc voltage is changed into an ac
voltage of variable frequency. Generally, the semiconductor devices used for its fabrication are
power transistors, MOSFETs, IGBT, GTO, thyristors, ect
Inverters mainly find applications in induction motor and synchronous motor drives along with
UPS, aircraft, and space power supplies. In high voltage dc transmission system, induction
heating supplies as well as low power systems of mobile nature like flashlight discharge
system in photography camera to very high power industrial system.
Like choppers, in inverters also conventional thyristors are used in high power applications
and power transistors are used in low power applications

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4-AC to AC Converters
An ac to ac converter is designed to change the ac signal of fixed frequency into a variable
ac output voltage.

There are two classifications of ac to ac converters which are as follows:

4A-Cycloconverters: A cycloconverter is a device used for changing ac supply of fixed
voltage and single frequency into an ac output voltage of variable voltage as well as different
frequency. However, here the obtained variable ac signal frequency is lower than the
frequency of the applied ac input signal. It adopts single-stage conversion. Generally, line
commutation is mostly used in cycloconverters however forced or load commutated
cycloconverters are also used in various applications.
These mainly find applications in slow-speed large AC traction drives such as a rotary kiln,
multi MW ac motor drives, etc.
4B-AC Voltage Controllers (AC voltage regulators): The converters designed to change
the applied ac signal of fixed voltage into a variable ac voltage signal of the same frequency
as that of input. For the operation of these controllers, two thyristors in an antiparallel
arrangement are used. Line commutation is used for turning off both the devices. It offers the
controlling of the output voltage by changing the firing angle delay.
The major applications of ac voltage controllers are in lighting control, electronic tap
changers, speed control of large fans and pumps as well.
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Linear Voltage Regulator
A linear voltage regulator is a regulator device that is used to maintain the specified
output voltage that remains constant despite variations in input voltage and load
condition. It uses an active pass device (such as BJT or MOSFET) which is controlled
by a high gain amplifier. The variable conductivity of the active pass element is
accountable to maintain the output voltage. The performance of a linear voltage
regulator is to act as a voltage divider to generate the regulated output voltage.
In a linear voltage regulator, a linear component (such as resistive load) is used to
regulate the output voltage. The transistor stays in an active region or ohmic region or
linear region of its operation during the voltage regulation.
In order to maintain a constant output voltage, the internal resistance can be varied.
The variable resistance is provided by using a transistor which is controlled by the
amplifier feedback loop.
A linear voltage regulator is also called a step-down converter where the output
voltage is always less than the input voltage. It consumes some of the power and
converts it into heat in order to generate a constant output voltage.

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Types of Linear Voltage Regulator
Based on the connection of load, there are mainly two
types of Linear Voltage Regulators. They are:
1.Series Voltage Regulator
2.Shunt Voltage Regulator

Series Voltage Regulator

In a series voltage regulator, a variable element or active pass element such as a
transistor is connected in series with the connected load. The constant output
voltage across the load is achieved by varying the resistance of the series
element with respect to the load.
Series voltage regulator is the more common form of the voltage regulator. It is
more efficient than a shunt voltage regulator.
The circuit diagram for a typical series voltage regulator is shown in the figure
below.

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SMPS-Switched Mode Power Supply
Unlike linear power supply, which uses the standard linear method of voltage
regulation, a switch mode power supply is a device that performs voltage
regulation of unregulated signal by using semiconductor switching methods. It is
considered to be highly efficient because it lessens power consumption thereby
showing a decrease in the amount of heat dissipated. Thus, has replaced
traditional linear power supply units.
SMPS includes a switching transistor (power MOSFET) for the purpose of
voltage regulation. During operation, the transistor switches between on
state and off state in a way that when it is on, it fully conducts current with the
negligible voltage drop across it. While when it is off, it tries to completely block
the flow of current. Thus, switching between on state (saturated) and off state
(cut-off) occurs at high frequency, and in this way, the device acts as an ideal
switch.
It is to be noted here that if the transformer operates at high frequency, so the
device size is reduced. Hence, the overall size of the SMPS is small with less
weight which is another advantage over linear power supplies.
Linear regulators always provide the step-down type of voltage regulation.
However, this is not the case with switch mode power supply, as it can provide
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both step up as well as step down type of voltage regulation.
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Initially, the unregulated ac input signal from the source is provided to the input
rectifier and filter circuit. Here the ac input signal is rectified to generate a dc signal
and further smoothened to remove high-frequency noise component from it. The dc
output (still in unregulated form) is fed to the power transistor that acts as a high-
frequency switch.
Here the dc signal undergoes chopping (switching). This circuit acts as an ideal
switch i.e., when the power transistor (chopper circuit) is in on state, current passes
through it with negligible voltage drop, and dc signal is obtained at the output
terminal of the transistor. However, under the off state of the power transistor, no
current passes through it and leading to cause maximal voltage drop within it. Thus,
at the output side, no voltage will be present.
Hence, according to the switching action of the power transistor dc voltage will be
obtained at its output side. The chopping frequency plays a crucial role in
maintaining the desired dc voltage level.

The obtained dc signal at the output of the chopper circuit is then fed to the primary
winding of the high-frequency power transformer. Here the step-down transformer
converts the high voltage signal into a low voltage level which is further provided as
input to the output rectifier and filter unit. This simply filters out the unwanted
residuals from the signal in order to provide a regulated dc signal as the output.

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The control circuitry present here acts as the feedback circuit for the complete
unit. This involves a comparator along with a pulse width modulator (PWM). The
dc output from the rectifier and filter is fed to the control circuit where the error
amplifier which acts as a comparator, compares the obtained dc voltage with the
reference value.
If the dc output is greater than the reference value then the chopping frequency
is to be decreased. The decrease in chopping frequency will reduce the output
power and so the dc output voltage. However, if the dc output is less than the
reference value then the chopping frequency is increased. When chopping
frequency is raised then the dc output voltage will get increased.
The pulse width modulator in the above circuit is responsible for generating a
fixed frequency pulse width modulated waveform whose duty cycle controls the
chopping frequency.
Basically, the duty ratio is the ratio of on-time to the overall cycle time (i.e., on +
off) time. Hence, by making necessary adjustments in the width of the pulses,
the chopping frequency gets adjusted hence, regulated dc output can be
obtained.

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Advantages
1.It is highly efficient than linear power supplies. Typically, the efficiency of SMPS
lies between 60% – 95%.
2.Due to the high-frequency operation of the device, the overall size is small and
less bulky. Thus, is compact.
3.It is inexpensive because heat dissipation is less.
4.The obtained output voltage can be more or less than the supply input.

Disadvantages
5.The transient spike generation due to switching action is one of the major
issues. This may lead to cause RF interference thus, isolation is mandatory.
6.The circuit is complex. Also, voltage regulation (controlling) is tricky.
7.Proper filtration is necessary to deal with noise and spikes.

Applications of SMPS
The devices invented under the latest technologies require a highly efficient
power supply which is offered by SMPS. Thus, it finds applications in various
power amplifiers, personal computers, security and railway systems, television
sets, motor drives, etc.
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Realization [Implementation] of logic expression [Boolean Function ] using basic
logic gates

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SUM OF PRODUCTS [SOP] AND PRODUCT OF
SUMS [POS]
Logical functions (Boolean expression) are generally
expressed in terms of logical variables (inputs) in
following forms. (Each input variable can have the
value, either 0 or 1 only)
•SUM OF PRODUCTS [SOP] Ex: AB’+ BC+C’D
•PRODUCT OF SUMS [POS] Ex: (A’+B’) (B’+C)
(C’+D)
MINTERMS
A product term containing all the inputs of the
functions in either complemented or uncomplemented
form is called MINTERMS.
Let us consider 3 variable (input) function. It has
23 all possible combinations. [A ‘n’ variable (input)
function has 2n all possible combinations]. Let the
inputs are A, B, C and output is Y.
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TRUTH TABLE-Example

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•In minterms, 0 are assigned with bar letter and

1 are assigned with unbar letter.

•Within the row, all are multiplied (Product)
•Choose only the output 1.
•Add the minterms which having 1 output.
•In this example, we get Y= A’BC’ + A’BC+
AB’C’+ ABC’. This expression is called canonical
SOP form. [Standard SOP form]
•Each input is assigned with it equivalent
decimal value. In the truth table, only the
output Y= 1 is chosen, it corresponding input’s
decimal values are stated as below.
Y= ∑m (2,3,4,6)
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MAXTERMS
A sum term containing all the inputs of the functions in
either complemented or uncomplemented form is called
MAXTERMS. Let us consider the same truth table.

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•In maxterms, 1 are assigned with bar letter and

0 are assigned with unbar letter.

•Within the row, all are summed (Added)
•Choose only the output 0.
•Product the maxterms which having 0 output.
•In this example, we get Y= (A+B+C) (A+B+C’)
(A’+B+C’) (A’+B’+C’). This expression is called
canonical POS form. [Standard POS form]
•Each input is assigned with it equivalent
decimal value. In the truth table, only the output
Y= 0 is chosen, it corresponding input’s decimal
values are stated as below.
Y= ∏M (0,1,5,7)
Note: Minterms and Maxterms are complement
with each other. 75
 1. For the Boolean function given below, obtain the (i)
canonical SOP form (ii) canonical POS form.
Y(A,B,C)= A+B’C
= AXX+ XB’C
= AB’C’+ AB’C+ ABC’+ ABC+A’B’C+ AB’C
[Remove the common term; Since
A+A=A ]
Y= AB’C’+ AB’C+ ABC’+ ABC+A’B’C [Canonical

SOP form]
100 101 110 111 001
(m4 m5 m6 m7 m1)

Y= ∑m (1,4,5,6,7)

Y= ∏M (0,2,3) [ Minterms and Maxterms are

complement with each other]
M0 M 2 M3
000 010 011
Y= (A+B+C) (A+B’+C) (A+B’+C’) [Canonical POS
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 Karnaugh maps/ K-map
If the number of input variables is more than 2,
its very difficult to minimize the Boolean function
by Boolean algebra. Karnaugh maps/ K map
overcomes this difficulty.
Karnaugh maps/ K map
•A visual way to simplify logic expressions
•It gives the most simplified form of the expression
•K-Maps are a graphical technique used to simplify
a logic equation.
•K-Maps can be used for any number of input
variables, BUT are only practical for two, three,
and four variables

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Procedure to minimize Boolean expression by K-
map:
1. We have to cheek, number of variables (Inputs).
(i)If the maximum number in the Boolean expression is ≤3,
it is 2 variable function.
(ii)If the maximum number in the Boolean expression is ≤7,
it is 3 variable function.
(iii)If the maximum number in the Boolean expression is
≤15, it is 4 variable function.
Note: Some times, in the question itself, inputs will be
given. Ex: Y(A,B,C)=∑(0,4,5,7)
2. Check the given question is Minterms or Maxterms. If ∑
is given, it is Minterms. In K-map, for the given decimal
location, we have to enter 1. In remaining location, we
have to enter 0.
If ∏ is given, it is Maxterms. In K-map, for the given decimal
location, we have to enter 0. In remaining location, we
have to enter 1.
3. Draw the K-map and fill it. (use step 1 & 2) 79
4 (a) Solution Procedure for SOP method
(i) We have box ALL the 1.
(ii) Larger the box, smaller the equation. Since all are
minimization problem, we have chose larger box.
(iii) The number of 1’s inside the box must be 2n. [ie we have
to try boxing 16 , if not possible we have to try boxing 8, if
not possible we have to try boxing 4, if not possible we have
to try boxing 2, if not possible we have to box 1]
(iv) The shape of the box must
be square or rectangular. ie
(v) For each box, we have to find unchanged input.
For that, we have see K-map from right to left, then bottom
to top. The unchanged input within the box should be
product. The product of one box should be sum with next
box.[In input, 0 are assigned with bar letter and 1 are
assigned with unbar letter]
(vi) Overlapping is allowed to make larger box.

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4 (b) Solution Procedure for POS method
(i) We have box ALL the 0.
(ii) Larger the box, smaller the equation. Since all are
minimization problem, we have chose larger box.
(iii) The number of 0’s inside the box must be 2n. [ie we have
to try boxing 16 , if not possible we have to try boxing 8, if
not possible we have to try boxing 4, if not possible we have
to try boxing 2, if not possible we have to box 1]
(iv) The shape of the box must
be square or rectangular. ie
(v) For each box, we have to find unchanged inputs.
For that, we have see K-map from right to left, then bottom
to top. The unchanged input within the box should be
summed. The sum of one box should be product with next
box.[In input, 1 are assigned with bar letter and 0 are
assigned with unbar letter]
(vi) Overlapping is allowed to make larger box.

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 K-MAP-SOP METHOD
1

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1

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2

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Three-Variable K-Map : Examples

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Four-Variable K-Maps Examples

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Four-Variable K-Maps Examples

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3,4-Variable K-Maps Examples

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K-MAP-POS METHOD

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3,4-Variable K-Maps Examples [POS]

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 FPGA

• A Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) is an integrated circuit that can be

configured by the user to emulate any digital circuit as long as there are enough
resources.
• The FPGA configuration is generally specified using a hardware description
language (HDL)
• An FPGA can be seen as an array of Configurable Logic Blocks (CLBs) connected
through programmable interconnect (Switch Boxes).

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 FPGA structure

CLB SB CLB

SB SB SB

Configurable Logic Blocks

CLB SB CLB

Interconnection Network

I/O Signals (Pins)

 Simplified CLB Structure

Look-Up MUX
Table D
SET
Q
(LUT)

CLB SB
CLR Q
CLB

SB SB SB

Configurable Logic Blocks

CLB SB CLB

Interconnection Network

I/O Signals (Pins)