Research Methods

By: Girma B. ( MPH, FE)

October / 2024
Debreberhan, Ethiopia
Introduction of research
After completing this chapter, the student should
be able to:
1.Define research in general and health systems
research in particular
2. Enumerate the characteristics of research
3.Identify the different types of research
4. List the essential features of health systems
research
5. Describe the broad divisions (steps) involved in the
research process
6. Explain the roles of research in development
Midwifery profession
3
 What is Research ?

• Just close your eyes for a moment

to think about that ? ?
• Is there any one who write an
article acceptable by reputable
journals ?
 What is Research
• Research is simply the process of thoroughly studying and
analysing the situational factors surrounding a problem in order
to seek out solutions to it.
• It is a systematic investigation designed to develop or contribute
to generalizable knowledge.
• The words systematic and generalizable are key words in the
definition.
 What is research----

• Research is a scientific inquiry aimed at

learning new facts, testing ideas, etc.
• It is the systematic collection, analysis and
interpretation of data to generate new
knowledge and answer a certain question or
solve a problem
 What is Health Research?

Health Research is a systematic collection,

analysis and interpretation of data to solve
a health problem.
 Purpose of Health Research

To generate knowledge essential to effectively

promote the health of the population.

Without that knowledge, effective action is

impossible because it has no logical or empirical
basis.
 Health System Research:
 Multidisciplinary field of scientific investigation that
studies how
• social factors,
• financing systems,
• organizational structures and processes,
• health technologies, and
• personal behaviors
Affect
– access to health care,
– the quality and cost of health care, and
– ultimately our health and well-being. 9
Essential features of HSR
1.Focus on priority problems
2.Action-oriented, i.e., aimed at developing solutions.
3.Multi-disciplinary
4.Participatory in nature, involving all parties concerned
5.Timely
6.Emphasis -simple, short-term research design
• yield practical results relatively quickly.
7.Cost-effectiveness
8.Results should be presented – concerned .
Honest discussion of practical or methodological problems
9. Evaluation of the research undertaken
• what decisions have been made based on the results of the study.
• the ability of research findings to influence policy, improve services and
contribution to the betterment of health.

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 Challenges in Health system research
Research has many problems, to mention some:
• Some clients may not want to participate,

• Numerous ethical issues need to be considered

in doing research on human beings,
• Takes time and other resources, etc

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 Research must be:
Purposeful: what do you want to be able to contribute?

Targeted: Who are the audiences?

Credible : consider sources of information, method of

data collection, personnel involved…

Timely: Is the information needed?

Research is done to find solutions to health problems.

 Characteristics of research:
•It demands a clear statement of the problem.
•It requires clear objectives and a plan (it is not
aimlessly looking for something in the hopes that you
will come across a solution).
•It builds on existing data, using both positive and
negative findings.
•New data should be systematically collected and
analysed to answer the original research objectives.
 Types of research
I. Based on purpose/objectives

Basic research: (also called fundamental or pure research)

is necessary to generate new knowledge and technologies to
deal with major unresolved health problems.

Applied research: Is a research that seeks to solve practical

problems.
It is necessary to identify priority problems and to design and
evaluate policies and programs that will deliver the greatest
health benefits, making optimal use of available resources.
 Types of research ….
II. Based on type of information
•Qualitative research: any type of research that employs
non-numeric information to explore individual or group
characteristics, producing findings not arrived at by statistical
procedures or other quantitative means
•Qualitative data are related to concepts, opinions, values
and behaviours of people in a social context
•Quantitative Research: explains phenomena by collecting
numerical data that are analyzed using mathematically based
methods (in particular statistics).
 Types of research ….

III. Based on Population

•Epidemiologic, Health Systems research -at
population level
•Biomedical , clinical research- At individual
level
 Types of research ….

Clinical Research
•Involves the scientific investigation of the etiology,
prevention, diagnosis or treatment of human
disease using human subjects, human populations
or materials of human origin.
•Included in the definition are studies that utilize
tissues or pathogens only if they can be linked to a
patient.
Example: studying the effectiveness of a new drug
in treating a specific disease
 Types of research ….
Epidemiologic Research
• Includes both descriptive & analytic studies
• Descriptive studies are concerned with describing

the general distribution of diseases. Eg cross

sectional studies
•Analytic studies are concerned with the cause and
prevention of disease E.g Cohort studies
 Types of research ….
• Nursing research- is a detailed
systematic study of a problem in the field
of nursing.
• Nursing research is practice- or discipline-
oriented and is essential for the continued
development of the scientific base of
professional nursing practice.
 Research Design
• Refers to the overall structure or plan of
the research
• A logical model that guides the
investigator in the various stages of the
research process
 Phases of Research

1.Research proposal development

2.Research report writing

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 Proposal development
• Formulation of the research proposal is the major task
in the process of developing a research project.
• The proposal is a basis for approval and funding.

• After approval, the proposal is used as a blueprint

during implementation of the project.
• It should be noted that development of a research
proposal is often a cyclical process.
Components of thesis proposal
 Title
 Summary
 Introduction
 Objective
 Methods
 Ethical considerations
 Dissemination of Results
 Work plan
 Cost of the project
 References
 annex
 Components of thesis report
 Title
 Acknowledgement

 Abstract

 Introduction

 Objective
 Methods
 Results

 Discussion

 Recommendation

 Reference

 Annex
 Overview of research process
What is the problem?

Define your initial objective

Search literature

Modify your objective based on the
information you get from literature

Write the full proposal guided by the objective
 What is A Problem?
What is ≠ What should be!

Ideal
Exist
 What is A Problem?
Whether a problem situation requires research depends
on three conditions:
1. There should be a perceived difference or
discrepancy between what exists and the ideal
2. The reason(s) for this difference should be unclear
(so that it makes sense to develop research questions);
and
3. There should be more than one possible answer to
a question or more than one solution to the problem
For example:
Problem situation 1:
In District X (pop. 145,000) sanitary conditions are poor (5% of
households have latrines) and diseases connected with poor
sanitation, such as hepatitis, gastro-enteritis and worms, are
very common. The Ministry of Health has therefore initiated a
sanitation project that aims at increasing the percentage of
households with latrines by 15% each year. The project provides
materials, and the population should provide labour. Two years
later, less than half of the target has been reached.
 Discrepancy:

35% of the households should have latrines,

but only 15% do have them.

Possible answers????

Research Problem or not?

Discrepancy:
35% of the households should have latrines, but only 15% do
have them.
Research question:
What factors can explain this difference?
Possible answers:
•Service-related factors, such as forgetting to adequately
inform and involve the population, bottlenecks in the supply of
materials, differences in training staff, lack of co-operation
between sectors.
•Population-related factors, such as situations where
community members lack understanding of the relationship
between disease and sanitation or have other problems, for
example due to poverty, which they consider more important.
•Physical factors/ecosystems, such as hard soil, or land
subjected to frequent flooding.
Problem situation 2: District A: 125 HIV-positive
adults were coming to the hospital every day as
part of a DOTS programme to take medication
for TB; last month … for one entire week, none
of the 125 patients received any medication
Discrepancy?

Problem question? What are the factors

responsible for 125 patients’ failing to receive
any treatment?
Possible answer: During the week … a very heavy
rainstorm caused flooding that washed out
several roads … a resupply truck could not reach
the hospital for one week…

Research Problem or not?

 Research topics

• The research topic or title should be specific and

clear.
• The topic should indicate the WHO/WHAT,
WHEN, WHY, WHERE and HOW

32
1. Research topic selection criteria
• Objective criteria

1. Relevance: priority, magnitude of problem

2. Avoidance of duplication
3. Feasibility: complexity, manpower, time, equipment,
money…
4. Political commitment: interest and support to utilize
results
5. Applicability (cost-effectiveness): availability of
resources
6. Timeliness: urgency of data needed for making
decision
7. Ethical acceptability

• Personal interest
 Selection of Research Topic cont..
1. Relevance
• The topic should be a priority problem
• How large or widespread is the problem?
• Who is affected?
• How severe is the problem?
2. Avoidance of duplication
• Find out whether the suggested topic has been
investigated before
• If topic has been researched, the results should be
reviewed to explore whether major questions that
deserve further investigation remain unanswered
• If not, another topic should be chosen
 Selection of Research Topic cont..
3. Feasibility
• Consider complexity, manpower, time, equipment,
money…
4. Political commitment
• interest and support of the local/ national authorities
• This will increase the chance that the results of the study
will be implemented
• However, in some circumstances, you may feel that a
study is required to show that the government’s policy
needs adjustment
• In such circumstances, make extra effort to involve the
policy makers at an early stage in order to limit the
chance for confrontation later
 Selection of Research Topic cont..
5. Applicability of possible results/
recommendations
• Is it likely that the recommendations from the
study will be applied?
• This will depend on:
– Management capacity within the team
– the blessing of the authorities
– availability of resources for implementing the
recommendations
 Selection of Research Topic cont..
6. Timeliness (urgency)
• urgency of data needed for making
decision
7. Ethical acceptability
• Consider the different ethical principles
 Scales for rating research topics
• Relevance
1= not relevant
2= relevant
3= very relevant
• Avoidance of duplication
1= sufficient information already available
2= some information available but major
issues not covered
3= no sound information available
 Scales cont…
• Timeliness (urgency)
1= information not urgently needed
2= information could be used right away but a delay of
some months could be acceptable
3= data very urgently needed for decision making
• Political acceptability
1= topic not acceptable to high level policy makers
2= topic more or less accepatble
3= topic fully acceptable
 Scales cont…
• Feasibility
1= study not feasible, considering available resources
2= study feasible, considering available resources
3= study very feasible, considering available resources
• Applicability
1= no chance of recommendations being implemented
2= some chance of recommendations being implemented
3= good chance of recommendations being implemented
 Scales cont…
• Ethical acceptability
1= major ethical problems
2= minor ethical problems
3= no ethical problems
 Summary of the scales
Topic Rel Avoidanc Fea Political Appli Timeli Ethica Total
eva e of sibil commit cabili ness l score
nce duplicatio ity ment ty accept
n ability
Topic 1
Topic 2
Topic 3
Topic 4

Prioritization: 1= LOW ; 2= MEDIUM; 3= HIGH

 Individual assignment
1. Mention 3 or more researchable problem
topics on your profession then select one topic
based on topic selection criteria
2. Write the statement problem for your
selected topic
3. Make literature review
4. Develop general and specific objectives for
your selected topic
 2. Statement of the problem
Constitutes the scientific justification for the study;
Gives an empirical basis to describe the situation
Clearly specifies the gaps (in existing knowledge
and/or
controversy and inconclusive evidence)
Defines the objective of study and conveys the
questions or broader issues
 2. Statement of the problem ---
Why is it important to state and define the problem
well? Because a clear statement of the problem:
ƒ 1. Is the foundation for the further development of the
research proposal (research objectives, methodology, work plan,
etc);
ƒ 2. Makes it easier to find information and reports of similar
studies from which your own study design can benefit;
ƒ 3. Enables the researcher to systematically point out why the
proposed research on the problem should be undertaken and
what you hope to achieve with the study results.
Information included in the statement of a problem
 A brief description of socioeconomic and cultural
characteristics and an overview of health status.
A more detailed description of the nature of the problem
 basic description of the research problem
 the discrepancy between what is and what should be
 its size, distribution, and severity (who is affected, where,
since when, etc.)
 An analysis of the major factors that may influence the
problem and a convincing argument that available knowledge is
insufficient to answer a certain question
Information included in the statement of a problem
 A brief description of any solutions that have been tried in the
past, how well they have worked, and why further research is
needed.
 A description of the type of information expected to result from
the project and how this information will be used to help solve the
problem
 If necessary, a short list of definitions of crucial concepts used
in the statement of the problem.
 i ew
ev
e R
tur
er a
Li t
3.
 Literature Review
• It is a body of text that aims to review critical points of current
knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical &
methodological contributions to a particular topic
• Literature review is an extremely important part of your dissertation
and it proves that you have learned and understood the matter
published on a particular topic collection, analysis, and write-up
• Your literature review is not a mere summary of publications by other
authors.
• It actually demonstrates your understanding of different arguments,
advancements and theories
 Purposes of literature review
• It prevents you from duplicating work that has been done
before.
• It increases your knowledge on the problem you want to
study and this may assist you in refining your "statement of
the problem".
• It gives you confidence why your particular research project
is needed
• To describe and analyze the knowledge that exists and what
gaps occur in research related to your field of interest
• It adopt methodology in doing a research
• It serves as a benchmark for comparing the results with
other findings
 literature review -----
Sources of information ƒ
Card catalogues of books in libraries ƒ
Organizations (institutions) ƒ
Published information (books, journals, etc.) ƒ
Unpublished documents (studies in related fields,
reports, etc.) ƒ
 Computer based literature searches such as Medline
ƒ
 Opinions, beliefs of key persons
 Some of the computerized
databases
• Google scholar
• HINARI
• Pub Med
• African Journals Online
http://www.ajol.infor/

52
 literature review -----
References that are identified: ƒ
Should first be skimmed or read ƒ
Then summaries of the important information in each of
the references may be recorded on separate index cards
ƒ
These should then be classified so that the information
can easily be retrieved
 literature review -----
The index cards should contain:
 Key words
 A summary of the contents of books or articles which
is relevant to one's own study
 A brief analysis of the content, with comments such
as: - how information from that particular study could be
used in one's own study
 Information obtained from key persons could also be
summarized on the index card
 literature review -----
 After collecting the required information on index
cards, the investigator should decide in which order
he/she wants to discuss previous research findings:
•From global to local
•From broader to focused
•From past to current
 literature review -----
In general, this review should answer
How much is known?
What is not known?
What should be done based on what is lacking?
Note that, the literature review should be adequate, relevant
and critical. In addition to this, appropriate referencing
procedures should always be followed in research proposals as
well as in research reports.
 E S
C T IV
B JE
4. O
 Objectives
The Objectives of a research project summarize what is to
be achieved by the study.
Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the
problem.
For example, if the problem identified is low utilization of
health stations in a rural district,
 The general objective of the study could be to assess the
reasons for this low utilization.
If we break down this general objective into smaller and
logically connected parts, then we get specific objectives.
 Definitions
General objectives: aim of the study in general
terms
Eg: In a study on missed opportunities for EPI in
Addis Ababa the general objective was: “to assess
missed opportunities for EPI in Addis Ababa”.
Specific objectives: measurable statements on the
specific questions to be answered.
• Unlike the general objectives, the specific
objectives are more specific and are related to the
research problem situation.
• They indicate the variable to be examined and
measured. 59
 Definitions cont…
Example: In the study of missed opportunity for EPI in
Addis Ababa the specific objectives could be:
 To find out the magnitude of missed opportunities for
children who attend OPD, MCH, etc. in Addis Ababa,
 To examine the reasons for children not being
immunized while attending the OPD, MCH, etc.
services.

12/28/24 60
 Formulation of the research objectives
The formulation of objectives will help us to:

• Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials)

• Avoid collection of data that are not strictly necessary for

understanding and solving the identified problem

• Organize the study in clearly defined parts

• The explicit formulation of study objectives is an essential
step in the planning of a study.
• Helps for evaluating the project

61
 How should we state our objectives?
We have to make sure that our objectives:
• Cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing
factors in a coherent way and in a logical sequence
• Are realistic considering local conditions

• Meet the purpose of the study

• Are clearly expressed in measurable terms

• Use action verbs that are specific enough to be measured

12/28/24 62
 Examples of action verbs are: cont…
 Use action verbs such as:

-determine -verify -identify

-describe - assess - compare

- calculate - establish -explore

 Avoid the use of vague non-action verbs such as;
- to appreciate
- to understand
- to study
- to believe

12/28/24 63
 d s
th o
m e
r ch
ea
es
R
4.
Research methods
 Research methods is a way to systematically solve
the research problem.
 The guiding principle for writing the Methods section is
that it should contain sufficient information for the reader
to determine whether the method is sound
 However, the methods do not have to be explained in
great detail, but should justify its significance over other
methods
 Research Methods cont…
Components of research methodology
Study setting and period
Study design
Target population
Study population
Sample size and sampling procedure
Variables
Operational definitions of key terms
Tools/instrument.
Data collection procedures
 Plan for analysis of data and interpretation of the
results
Ethical considerations
 Research Methods cont…
A. Study setting and period
 It is related to the study area and other characteristics
which are more related to the study; write as a brief
 Include map if possible
 Write the time to which the data belongs to or the time
where the data represents the characteristics studied
 Research Methods cont…
B.Study design
 A study design is a specific plan or protocol for

conducting the study, which allows the investigator to

translate the conceptual hypothesis into an operational
one
 The study design to be used should be appropriate for
achieving the objective of the study and should also
be clearly stated
 Study design options
1. Quantitative - If the problems calls for: the
identification of factors or the utility of an intervention, or
knowing the prevalence of diseases

2. Qualitative : If a concept or phenomenon needs to be

understood because little research has been done on it

3. Mixed: is useful when either the quantitative or

qualitative approach by itself is inadequate to best
understand a research problem
 B.Study design…..
There are two broad groups of research designs
Experimental
Non-experimental (observational)
 Experiment - Set of observations, conducted under controlled
circumstances, in which the scientist (researcher) manipulates the
condition to ascertain what effect such manipulation has on the
outcome
 All experimental studies are longitudinal since subjects are
followed from exposure of intervention to outcome
 B.Study design …..
Observational designs
 Cross-sectional/Surveys: the whole population or a
sample is studied at point a point in time
 Cohort Studies: subjects are selected with reference
to their exposure status and followed up
 Case Control Studies: Subjects are selected in
reference to their disease status.
 Research Methods cont…
C. Population
 Broadly, population can be categorized as target population and
study population
 Target population is a collection of items that have something in
common for which we wish to draw conclusions at a particular
time.
 In other words, there could be some elements of the target
population which are systematically excluded from the study
population and hence might not be represented in the sample
 Study(sampled) Population: is a part of target population and
actually accessible and legitimate for data collection
 Research Methods cont…
D. Inclusion criteria
 Use inclusion criteria that would give you a larger study
population, but legitimate to answer the research question
Example: For a study to assess contraceptive utilization (family
planning): women aged 15-49 from a study area can be included
into the study
Exclusion criteria: Think critically to find people who fulfill the
inclusion criteria but are not eligible
Example: Women who are infertile can be excluded from the
study
NB: non-respondents cannot be part of exclusion criteria
 Research Methods cont…
E. Sample size and sampling procedure
 Whether the study design to be employed is quantitative or
qualitative, a standard sampling technique is important in most
situations (i.e. except census)
 However, the sampling techniques in qualitative and
quantitative studies are different. This is because, in qualitative
study, the aim is not generalization of the population parameter
(rather it is a discovery), whereas this is true in quantitative
study.
 As a result, in qualitative study we employ non-probability
sampling techniques
 Sample size and sampling cont…
 On contrary to this, in quantitative study, we have different
probability sampling techniques (simple random sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster sampling, systematic sampling, multi-
stage sampling etc) to get a representative sample.

 This is because it is only probability sampling technique that

would enable us to predict population parameters with certain
level of confidence (e.g. 95%) and level of precision (e.g. 100
gram for mean weight estimation of newborns)
 Sample size and sampling cont…

Therefore, in quantitative study, to take a sound

generalization about a population parameter, we must
have a representative sample.
 In turn, a representative sample could be secured if
two things have been fulfilled:
• We must have a minimum but adequate sample size
drawn from the population
•The sampling technique employed must be in line with
the distribution of the characteristic we are to study
 Sample size and sampling cont…
In quantitative study, the larger the sample size, the more will be
the likelihood to represent the population. Of course, after a
certain limit the gain in accuracy will diminish as the sample size
increases
 The adequate minimum sample size can be determined using:
 Thumb rule,
 Precision approach
 Power approach \
 In any case, consider the non-response rate (contingency),
design effect or the number of independent variables.
 Sample size and sampling cont…
Rules of thumb
1.If the population size is small (N ‹ 100), there is little point in
sampling. Survey the entire population.
2. If the population size is around 500, 50% should be sampled.
3.If the population size is around 1500, 20% should be sampled.
4.4. Beyond a certain point (N = 5000), the population size is
almost irrelevant and a sample size of 400 may be adequate.
5.Statistician – maximalist – at least 500
 Sample size and sampling cont…
Precision approach
Hence the absolute precision denoted by d is given as (N >
10,000)
d = (Zα/2) Se
For mean estimation
d = (Zα/2) Se d= (Zα/2) σ/√n
√n = (Zα/2) σ/d
n = (Zα/2)2 σ2/d2
For proportion estimation
d = (Zα/2) Se d= (Zα/2) √p(1-p)/n
√n = (Zα/2) √p(1-p)/d
n = (Zα/2)2 p(1-p)/d2
Where s.e is the standard error of the estimator of the parameter
of interest.
 Sample size and sampling cont…

The sample size is determined using the following assumption:

 A 95 % confidence interval

 50 % single population proportion (since there is no

previous estimates on prevalence of Helicobacter pylori

infections among children in Gondar)

 A marginal of error 5 %, and

 10 % non response rate are added to the total samp

 Point to be considered
81

81
 Precision approach
Example 1 (Prevalence of diarrhoea)
A) p = 0.26 , d = 0.03 , Z = 1.96 ( i.e., for a 95% C.I.)
n = (1.96)2 (0.26 × 0.74) / (0.03)2
n = 821.25 ≈ 822
Thus, the study should include at least 822 subjects.
B) If the above sample is to be taken from a relatively
small population (say N = 3000), the required
minimum sample will be obtained from the above
estimate by making some adjustment.
n =821.25 / (1+ (821.25/3000)) =
644.7 ≈ 645 subjects 82
 Precision approach
• Example 2 A hospital administrator wishes to know what
proportion of discharged patients are unhappy with the care
received during hospitalization. If 95% Confidence interval is
desired to estimate the proportion within 5%, how the most
maximum sample should be drawn?

83
 F. Variables
• A variable is a characteristic of a person, object or
phenomenon, which can take on different values.
• These may be in the form of numbers (e.g., age) or non-
numerical characteristics (e.g., sex).
• Numerical Variables are the values of variables are
expressed in numbers. It classified in to two:
Continuous. With this type of data, one can develop more
and more accurate measurements depending on the
instrument used,
• e.g.: height ,temperature
Discrete. These are variables in which numbers can only
have full values,
e.g.: number of visits to a clinic
number of sexual partners 84
 F. Variables…..
Categorical Variables are variables are expressed in
categories.
It is either ordinal or Nominal
Ordinal variables. These are grouped variables that
are ordered or ranked in increasing or decreasing
order: For example: income, pain
Nominal variables. The groups in these variables do
not have an order or ranking in them.
For example: Sex:, Main food crops, Religion
 Operational definition of variables
 An operational definition describes or defines a variable in terms
of the operations or techniques used to make it happen or
measure it.
 When quantitative researchers describe the variables in the
study, they specify what they mean by demonstrating how they
measured the variable
 Abstract concepts like knowledge about how to prevent
HIV/AIDS infection need to be defined operationally. For example,
the investigator may provide item questions and change the
responses into a score that could show the level of knowledge in
HIV/AIDS.
 Operational definition of variables…..
Nutritional status of under-5 year olds is an example
of a variable that cannot be measured directly and for
which you would need to choose appropriate
indicators.
For the classification of nutritional status, which are
based on standard growth curves.
For the indicator weight/age, for example, children
are:
• Well nourished if they are above 80% of the
standard
• Moderately malnourished if they are between 60% -
80%
• Severely malnourished if they are below 60%
87
CAUSES AND ASSOCIATIONS
Dependent and independent variables
•The variable that is used to describe or measure the problem
under study is called the DEPENDENT variable.
•The variables that are used to describe or measure the factors
that are assumed to cause or at least to influence the problem
are called the INDEPENDENT variables.

• For example, in a study of the relationship between smoking

and lung cancer, ‘suffering from lung cancer’ (with the values
yes, no) would be the dependent variable and ‘smoking’ (varying
from not smoking to smoking more than three packets a day) the
independent variable
G. DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
One of the most important components of a research
design is a set of research instruments because they are the
tools we use to collect the data
Some of them are questionnaires, measuring instruments
(e.g anthropometric measuring instruments like meter tape,
balance scale), etc for quantitative study, and
 Interview guideline (check list), tape recorder , etc. for
qualitative study
 Research instrument/Tools ……...
 Questionnaires are the most frequently used data
collection tools in quantitative research.
 If there are standard questionnaires already designed
by other organizations, use it as one should not re-invent
the wheel.
 Otherwise, developing a valid and reliable
questionnaire is a must to reduce measurement error
which is the "discrepancy between respondents' actual
attributes and their survey responses
 Differences between data collection
techniques and data collection tools
Data collection techniques Data collection tools
Using available information Checklist; data compilation
forms

Observation Eyes and other senses,

pen/paper, watch, scales,
microscope, etc..

Interviewing Interview guide, checklist,

questionnaire, tape recorder

Administering written Questionnaire

questionnaire
 Advantages and disadvantages cont..
Technique Advantages Disadvantages (constraints)
Using available Is inexpensive, permits observation Data is not always easily accessible;
information of trends over the past ethical issues concerning
confidentiality may arise; information
may be imprecise or incomplete

observing Gives more detailed & context related Ethical issues concerning
information; permits collection of confidentiality or privacy may arise;
information on facts not mentioned in observer bias may occur; the
an interview; permits tests of presence of data collector can
reliability of responses to influence the situation observed;
questionnaires thorough training of research
assistances is required

Interviewing Is suitable for use with both literates Presence of interviewer can
& illiterates; permits clarification of influence responses; reports of
questions; has higher response rate events may be less complete than
than written questionnaires information gained through
observations
 Advantages and disadvantages cont…
Technique Advantages Disadvantages (constraints)
Small scale Permits collection of in-depth Interviewer may inadvertently
flexible interview information & exploration of influence the respondents; analysis
spontaneous remarks by respondents of open ended data is more difficult &
time-consuming

Large scale fixed Is easy to analyze Important information may be missed

interview b/c spontaneous remarks by
respondents are usually not recorded
or explored

Administering Is less expensive; permits anonymity Cannot be used with illiterates; there
written & may result in more honest is often a low rate of response;
questionnaire responses; does not require research questions may be misunderstood
assistants; eliminates bias due to
phrasing questions differently with
different respondents

Participatory & Provide rich data & may have Require some extra training of
projective positive spin offs for knowledge & researchers
methods skills by researchers and
informants
 H. Data Analysis and Interpretation

A plan for data analysis and interpretation of the results

will be prepared because it helps the researcher to make
sure that:
 The information needed will be collected
 All the information collected will be analyzed
 The data will be collected in such a way that it will be
analyzed based on what was planned
 Data Analysis and Interpretation …..
In the plan for data analysis and interpretation, write clearly
what will be done in the following three stages:
i.Data processing stage : Write that you will edit, verify, and
clean the data and code it as necessary before analysis.
ii. Analysis stage : Write clearly that you will present
descriptive and analytical findings based on the type of variables
iii. Interpretation : Indicate that you will discuss your findings
with known theories on the topic and other recent research
findings done
 Data Analysis and Interpretation …..

When making a plan for data processing and analysis

the following issues should be considered:
• Sorting data,

• Performing quality-control checks,

•Data processing, and

•Data analysis.
Plan for data processing and analysis…
1. Sorting data:
•An appropriate system for sorting the data is
important for facilitating subsequent processing and
analysis.
•If you have different study populations (for example
village health workers, village health committees and
the general population), you obviously would number
the questionnaires separately.
•In a comparative study it is best to sort the data right
after collection into the two or three groups that you
will be comparing during data analysis.
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Plan for data processing and analysis…
2. Performing quality control checks
•Usually the data have already been checked in the
field to ensure that all the information has been
properly collected and recorded.
•Before and during data processing, however, the
information should be checked again for
completeness and internal consistency.
•If a questionnaire has not been filled in completely
you will have MISSING DATA for some of your
variables. If there are many missing data in a
particular questionnaire, you may decide to exclude
the whole questionnaire from further analysis.
Plan for data processing and analysis…
3. Data processing
Data decide whether to process and analyze on
•manually, using data master sheets or manual
compilation of the questionnaires, or
•by computer, using a micro-computer and existing
software or self written programs for data analysis.
Data processing in both cases involves:
• Categorizing the data,
•coding, and
•summarizing the data in data master sheets, manual
compilation without master sheets, or data entry and
verification by computer.
Plan for data processing and analysis…

Computer compilation consists of the following

steps:
i.Choosing an appropriate computer program
Epi Info, Epi data, SPSS, Stata, R, ------
ii.Data entry : develop a data entry format
iii.Verification or validation of the data
iv.Computer outputs/print
 I. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
As we develop our data collection techniques, we need to
consider whether our research procedures are likely to cause
any physical or emotional harm.
Several methods for dealing with these issues may be
recommended:
obtaining informed consent before the study or the interview
begins;
not exploring sensitive issues before a good relationship has
been established with the informant;
ensuring the confidentiality of the data obtained; and
learning enough about the culture of informants to ensure it is
respected during the data collection process.
 5. WORK PLAN
A WORK PLAN is a schedule, chart or graph that summarises
the different components of a research project and how they will
be implemented in a coherent way within a specific time-span.
It may include:
•The tasks to be performed;
•When and where the tasks will be performed; and
•Who will perform the tasks and the time each person will spend
on them.
 WORK PLAN …..
A WORK SCHEDULE is a table that summarises the tasks to be
performed in a research project, the duration of each activity and
who is responsible for the different tasks.
The version of a work schedule includes:
• The dates each task should begin and be completed;
• Research team, research assistants and support staff (drivers,
typists) assigned to the tasks
•Person-days required by research team members, research
assistants and support staff
•The tasks to be performed;
Example of work schedule----
The GANTT Chart
A GANTT chart is a planning tool that depicts graphically the
order in which various tasks must be completed and the duration
of each activity.
The GANTT chart shown on the following page indicates:
•the tasks to be performed;
•who is responsible for each task; and
•the time each task is expected to take.
The length of each task is shown by a bar that extends over the
number of days, weeks or months the task is expected to take.
Example of work plan

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 6. Budget preparation
•The work plan is the starting point for developing your
budget. Specify, for each activity in the work plan, what
resources are required. Determine for each resource
needed the unit cost and the total cost

• The budget for the fieldwork component of the work

plan will include funds for personnel, transport and
supplies
 Budget preparation
Why do we need to prepare a budget?
A detailed budget will help you to identify which
resources are already locally available and which
additional resources may be required.

The process of budget preparation will

encourage you to consider aspects of the work
plan you have not thought about before and will
serve as a useful reminder of activities planned,
as your research gets underway.
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Example of budget preparation
THANK SO MUCH