Course: General Chemistry

Textbook: Chemistry, the central science, 12th edition. P. M.

Woodward.

1
 Chapter 1
Introduction:
Matter and Measurements

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1.1 The Study of Chemistry
• Chemistry
– the study of all aspects of matter (composition
and property) and the changes that matter
undergoes
• Matter
– anything that has mass and occupies space

3
• Chemistry you may already know
– Familiar terms: molecules, atoms, and chemical
reactions
• Familiar chemical formula: H2O molecule

4
 • Molecules can be represented several
different ways including molecular
formulas and molecular models.

O
H H

Molecular formula ball-and-stick space-fill

Molecular models

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Each element in the Molecular model is represented by a
particular color

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1.2 Classification of Matter
• Matter is either classified as a
substance or a mixture of substances.
• Substance
– Can be either an element or a compound
– Has a definite (constant) composition and
distinct properties
– Examples: sodium chloride, water, oxygen,
sodium

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 Substances
• Element: cannot be decomposed into simpler
substances by chemical means.
– Each element composed of similar atoms
– About 118 element known, each has chemical symbol (back
cover of book)
– Examples: iron (Fe), mercury (Hg), oxygen (O), and hydrogen
(H)
• Compounds: two or more different elements chemically
combined in definite (fixed) ratios
– Cannot be separated by physical means
– Examples: salt (NaCl), water (H 2O) and carbon dioxide (CO 2)

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 Mixtures
• Mixture: physical combination of two or
more substances
– Substances retain distinct identities
– No universal constant composition
– Can be separated by physical means
• Examples: sugar/iron; sugar/water

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• Types of Mixtures
– Homogeneous: composition of the mixture
is uniform throughout
• Example: sugar dissolved in water

– Heterogeneous: composition is not

uniform throughout
• Example: sugar mixed with iron filings

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Classification of Matter

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Molecular Comparison of Substances and Mixtures

Atoms of an element Molecules of an element

Molecules of a compound Mixture of two elements

and a compound
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Classify the following

Aluminum foil
Baking soda
Milk
Air
Copper wire

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Aluminum foil:
substance, element
Baking soda:
substance, compound
Milk:
mixture, homogeneous
Air:
mixture, homogeneous
Copper wire:
substance, element
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 1.3 Properties of Matter
• Quantitative property: expressed using
numbers
• Qualitative property: expressed using
properties

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Physical properties: can be observed and measured
without changing the substance
– Examples: color, melting point, states of matter
– Physical changes: the identity of the substance stays the
same
– Examples: changes of state (melting, freezing)
Chemical properties: must be determined by the
chemical changes that are observed
– Examples: flammability, acidity, corrosiveness, reactivity
– Chemical changes: after a chemical change, the original
substance no longer exists
– Examples: combustion, digestion

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Extensive property: depends on
amount of matter
– Examples: mass, length

Intensive property: does not depend

on amount
– Examples: density, temperature, color

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 Physical States of Matter (physical property)
I. Solid
 particles close together in orderly fashion
 little freedom of motion
 a solid sample does not conform to the shape
of its container

II. Liquid
 particles close together but not held rigidly in
position
 particles are free to move past one another
 a liquid sample conforms to the shape of the
part of the container it fills 18
III. Gas
particles randomly spread apart
particles have complete freedom of movement
a gas sample assumes both shape and
volume of container.

 States of matter can be inter-converted without

changing chemical composition (physical property)
•solid  liquid  gas (add heat)
•gas  liquid  solid (remove heat)

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 States of Matter

Solid Liquid Gas 20

 1.4 Units of Measurement
• Used to measure quantitative properties
of matter
• SI base units (Page 15)

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SI Prefixes (Page 16)

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• Mass: a measure of the amount of matter
– (weight refers to gravitational pull)

• Temperature:
1.Celsius
• Represented by C
• Based on freezing point of water as 0C and
boiling point of water as 100C
2.Kelvin (SI unit)
• Represented by K (no degree sign)
• The absolute scale
• Units of Celsius and Kelvin are equal in
magnitude
3.Fahrenheit (the English system) (F)
32 – 212 F
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Equations for Temperature Conversions

o o 5
C ( F  32) 
9
o
K  C  273.15

o 9 o
F   C  32
5
See Fig. 1.17
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 Temperature Conversions

A clock on a local bank reported a

temperature reading of 28oC. What is this
temperature on the Kelvin scale?
o
K  C  273.15

o
K 28 C  273.15 301 K

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 Practice
Convert the temperature reading on the
local bank (28C) into the corresponding
Fahrenheit temperature.

o 9 o
F   C  32
5
o 9 o o
F   28 C  32 82 F
5

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 Derived units
• Volume: meter cubed (m3)
– Derived unit
– The unit liter (L) is more commonly used in the
laboratory setting. It is equal to a decimeter
cubed (dm3).

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• Density: Ratio of mass to volume
– Formula:
m
d
V
– d = density (g/mL)
– m = mass (g)
– V = volume (mL or cm3)
(*gas densities are usually expressed in g/L)
 Practice
The density of a piece of copper wire is
8.96 g/cm3. Calculate the volume in cm3
of a piece of copper with a mass of 4.28 g.

m
d
V
m 4.28 g 3
V  0.478 cm
d 8.96 g
3
cm
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 1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement
• Exact: numbers with defined values
– Examples: counting numbers, conversion
factors based on definitions

• Inexact: numbers obtained by any method

other than counting (value with uncertainty)
– Examples: measured values in the laboratory

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Significant figures
– Used to express the uncertainty of
inexact numbers obtained by
measurement
– The last digit in a measured value is
an uncertain digit - an estimate

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• Guidelines for significant figures
1. Any non-zero digit is significant
2. Zeros between non-zero digits are
significant
3. Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit
are not significant
4. Zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit
are significant if decimal is present
5. Zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit
are not significant if decimal is not present

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 Practice
Determine the number of significant figures in
each of the following.
345.5 cm
4 significant figures
0.0058 g
2 significant figures
1205 m
4 significant figures
250 mL
2 significant figures
250.00 mL
5 significant figures
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• Calculations with measured numbers
– Addition and subtraction
• Answer cannot have more digits to the
right of the decimal than any of original
numbers
• Example:

102.50 two digits after decimal point

+ 0.231 three digits after decimal point
102.731 round to 102.73
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• Multiplication and division
– Final answer contains the smallest
number of significant figures
– Example:

1.4 x 8.011 = 11.2154 round to 11

(Limited by 1.4 to two significant figures in answer)

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• Exact numbers
– Do not limit answer because exact
numbers have an infinite number of
significant figures
– Example:
A penny minted after 1982 has a mass of
2.5 g. If we have three such pennies, the
total mass is
3 x 2.5 g = 7.5 g
– In this case, 3 is an exact number and
does not limit the number of significant
figures in the result.

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• Multiple step calculations
– It is best to retain at least one extra
digit until the end of the calculation to
minimize rounding error.
• Rounding rules
– If the number is less than 5 round
“down”.
– If the number is 5 or greater round
“up”.

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 Practice
105.5 L + 10.65 L = 116.2 L
Calculator answer: 116.15 L
Round to: 116.2 L Answer to the tenth position

1.0267 cm x 2.508 cm x 12.599 cm = 32.44 cm3

Calculator answer: 32.4419664 cm3
Round to: 32.44 cm3 round to the smallest
number of significant figures

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• Accuracy and precision
– Two ways to gauge the quality of a
set of measured numbers
– Accuracy: how close a measurement
is to the true or accepted value
– Precision: how closely
measurements of the same thing are
to one another

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both accurate and precise

not accurate but precise

neither accurate nor precise

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Describe accuracy and precision for each
set

Student A Student B Student C

0.335 g 0.357 g 0.369 g
0.331 g 0.375 g 0.373 g
0.333 g 0.338 g 0.371 g
Average:
0.333 g 0.357 g 0.371 g

• True mass is 0.370 grams

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Student A’s results are precise but not accurate.

Student B’s results are neither precise nor accurate.

Student C’s results are both precise and accurate.

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 1.6 Using Units and Solving
Problems
• Conversion factor: a fraction in which
the same quantity is expressed one way
in the numerator and another way in the
denominator
– Example: by definition, 1 inch = 2.54 cm

1 in 2.54 cm
2.54 cm 1 in
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• Dimensional analysis: a problem
solving method employing conversion
factors to change one measure to
another often called the “factor-label
method”
– Example: Convert 12.00 inches to meters
• Conversion factors needed:
2.54 cm = 1 in and 100 cm = 1 meter

2.54 cm 1m
12.00 in   0.3048 m
1 in 100 cm
*Note that neither conversion factor limited the number of significant
figures in the result because they both consist of exact numbers.
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 Notes on Problem Solving
• Read carefully; find information given and what is
asked for
• Find appropriate equations, constants, conversion
factors
• Check for sign, units and significant figures
• Check for reasonable answer

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 Practice
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
recommends that dietary sodium intake
be no more than 2400 mg per day. What
is this mass in pounds (lb), if 1 lb = 453.6 g?

1g 1 lb 3
2400 mg   5.3 10 lb
1000 mg 453.6 g

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 Key Points
• Classifying matter
• SI conversions
• Density
• Temperature conversions
• Physical vs chemical properties and
changes
• Dimensional analysis

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