Electrical & Electronics

Measurement (313334)
Class:- EE-3k
Presented by :- G.P.WANKHADE
Chapter 1
Fundamentals of Measurements

What is Measurements?
It is the process of comparing unknown
quantity with known meaningful quantity

What is Measuring Instruments?

It is the device which is determines the
value or magnitude of quantity
Fundamentals & Derived Quantities

What are Fundamental Quantities?

Fundamental quantities are the quantities that
cannot be expressed in any other physical
quantities.
There are only 7 base units, and they are not
derived.
Time (second), Length (meter), Temperature
(Kelvin), Mass (kilogram), Current (amphere),
Luminosity (Candela), Substance (mole)

What are the Derived Quantities?

Derived quantities are the quantities that can be
expressed in other physical quantities.
Important Electrical Units
Electrical Measuring
Symbol Description
Parameter Unit

Unit of Electrical
Voltage Volt V or E Potential
V=I×R

Unit of Electrical
Current Ampere I or i Current
I=V÷R

Unit of DC
Resistance Ohm R or Ω Resistance
R=V÷I

Reciprocal of
Conductance Siemen G or ℧ Resistance
G=1÷R

Unit of Capacitance
Capacitance Farad C
C=Q÷V
Important Electrical Units
Electrical Measuring
Symbol Description
Parameter Unit

Unit of Electrical
Charge Coulomb Q Charge
Q=C×V

Unit of Inductance
Inductance Henry L or H
VL = -L(di/dt)

Unit of Power
Power Watts W
P = V × I or I2 × R

Unit of AC
Impedance Ohm Z Resistance
Z2 = R 2 + X 2

Unit of Frequency
Frequency Hertz Hz
ƒ=1÷T
Systems of Electrical Units

What is CGS systems?

The CGS system was introduced formally
by the British Association for the
Advancement of Science in 1874. It found
almost immediate favor with working
scientists, and it was the system most
commonly used in scientific work for
many years.
“It is Stands for Centimeter, Gram,
Second”
Systems of Electrical Units

What is MKS systems?

But because the CGS units are relatively
small in size, engineers preferred a
system based on larger units. The MKS
System, based on the “meter, kilogram,
and second” appeared within a few years
as a competing choice for a coherent
system of units.
Systems of Electrical Units
What is MKS systems?
Apart from this to Connect Electrical &
Mechanical Quantities a Fourth Quantity
is used that will be “Permeability or
Permittivity”

CGS

Electromagne Electrostatic
tic Units Unitis
MLTµ MLTϵ
Rationalization of MKS Systems

Rationalization?
International Electro-technical commission
recommended ampere as a fourth
fundamental unit.
Rationalization of MKS Systems
Rationalization of MKS Systems
Standards:It is a physical representation of a measuring uinit
Standards of Measurement are classified into the following categories:

•International Standards:
•These international standards are defined on the basis of international
agreement.
•These standards mainly represent the units of measurements. Whose values are
close to the possible accuracy.
•These standards are also in regular check
•The International Bureau of Weights and Measures maintains the international
standards.
• They are not provided for the use of ordinary users for measuring instruments and
calibrating them.

•Primary Standards:-
•These are absolute standard having high accuracy.
•These are maintain by national standard laboratories in different parts of
world.
These are not available for ordinary user
These standard is useful for inspection of secondary standard
G.P.WANKHADE 13
Secondary standards :-

These are the third level of standard.

These are calibrated with reference to a primary standard.
These standard are kept by the measurement laboratories the industrial
organization.
To check and calibrate the general tools for their accuracy and precision.

Working standards : -

These standards are forth level of standard,

It has a lower accuracy than that of the secondary standards.
These are the normal standards which are used by the workers and
technicians.
Instruments: is a tool or device that is used to do a particular task.
We can classify the instruments into two types
Classification of Measuring Instruments
Instrument it is a device that is used to do a particular task.

Instrumen
ts

Mechanica Electronic
Electrical
l s
Instrumen
Instrumen Instrumen
ts
ts ts

Absolute Secondary
Instrumen Instrumen
ts ts

Analog Digital
Instrumen Instrumen
ts ts

Deflecting
Null
Instrumen
Deflecting
ts

Integratin
Indicating Recording
g
Instrumen Instrumen
Instrumen
ts ts
ts
 Absolute (Primary) instrument:

 Absolute (Primary) instrument: -

 These instrument read quantity under measurements
indirectly.
These instruments gives the magnitude of quantity
under measurement in terms of physical constants of
the instrument
e.g. Tangent Galvanometer.
These instruments do not require comparison with any
other standard instrument.
These instruments give the value of the electrical
quantity in terms of some constants of the instruments
and their deflections.
In this type of instruments no calibration or
comparison with other instruments is necessary.
 - They are generally not used in laboratories
 Secondary instrument

These instrument read quantity under measurements directly.

 These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an
absolute instrument or another secondary instrument.
e.g. ammeters, voltmeter, wattmeter, energy meter (watt-hour
meter), ampere-hour meters etc
It takes a lot of time to compute the magnitude of quantity
under measurement.
Therefore secondary instruments are most commonly used.
They are direct reading instruments.
The quantity to be measured by these instruments can be
determined from the deflection of the instruments.
They are often calibrated by comparing them with either
some absolute instrument
 These instruments are used in general for all laboratory
purposes.
difference between absolute and secondary
instruments?

absolute instrument secondary instrument

1. These instrument 1. These instrument read
readquantity under quantity under
measurements measurements directly
indirectly 2. Secondary instruments
2. Absolute instruments are utilized in day to
are being used as day life
standardization
methods in 3. There is need to
laboratories. compare them with the
3. There is no need to against an absolute
compare them with the instrument.
other standard 4. Examples:
instruments.
1) Ammeter 2)Voltmeter
4. Examples:
3)Watmeter 4)energy
1)Tangent galvanometer meter.
Seconadry instrument classicfication

 The secondary instrument Classification : based on the

their application
 (1) Indicating instrument.
 (2) Recording instrument.
 (3) Integrating instrument

 (1) Indicating instrument: - These instrument indicate

rading with the help of pointer and calibrated scale.
 Thes instrument gives the instantaneous value of quantity
under measurment
- Ex: ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter used in laboratories and on panel, boards
 Recording instrument: -
 Some processes require a continuous record of measured quantity.
 The recording instruments give a continuous record of quantity
under measurment over a certain period of time .
 These instrument gives the graphical representation of quantity
under measurement with the help of pen and paper.
 Examples.
1. ECG (Electro cardiogram of person).
2. (2) Earth quake measuring system.
3. (3) Supply voltage variation in substation.
4. (4) Temperature variation in furnace.

(2) Integrating instrument:-

 The Integrating instrument gives summation of the quantity under
measurement over a certain period of time.
 means integrates the quantity under measurement over a period of
time.
 The reading is achived with the help of counting or registering
mechanism.
 Ex: energy meter, watt hour meter, trajectory .
Analog & Digital Instruments

THE INSTRUMENT WHICH GIVES OUTPUT THAT

VARIES CONTINUOUSLY AS QUANTITY TO BE
MEASURED IS KNOWN AS ANALOG INSTRUMENT.
THE INSTRUMENT WHICH GIVES OUTPUT THAT
VARIES IN DISCRETE STEPS AND ONLY HAS FINITE
NUMBER OF VALUES IS KNOWN AS DIGITAL
INSTRUMENT. THE ACCURACY OF ANALOG
INSTRUMENT IS LESS.
Deflecting Instruments

The instruments in
which the measured
quantity produces
physical effects
which deflect or
displace the moving
system of
the instruments in
known as
the deflection type instr
ument
Null Deflecting Instruments

An instrument in which zero or null indication

determines the magnitude of measured quantity
such type of instrument is called a null type
instrument. It uses a null detector which indicating
the null condition when the measured quantity and
the opposite quantity are same.
Indicating Instruments

Indicating
instruments
indicate,
generally the
quantity to be
measured by
means of a
pointer which
moves on
a scale.
Examples
are ammeter,
voltmeter,
wattmeter etc.
Integrating Instruments

The integrating instrument measures the total

energy supplied by the circuit in a given interval
of time. It is independent of the rate at which the
total energy consumed. The watt hour meter is
the example of integrating instruments.
Recording Instruments
The recording
instruments take
readings of the
physical quantities in
the form of the graph.
It also records the
variation of the
quantities concerning
the time. The
voltmeter,
thermoscope, ECG
machine,
galvanometer
recorder are the
examples of
the recording
instrument.
Characteristics of measurement systems

•The system characteristics are to be

known, to choose an instrument that
most suited to a particular measurement
application.

•The performance characteristics may be

broadly divided into two groups, namely
‘static’ and 'dynamic' characteristics.
Characteristics of measurement systems

Static characteristics
•the performance criteria for the
measurement of quantities that remain
constant, or vary only quite slowly.
Dynamic characteristics
•the relationship between the system
input and output when the measured
quantity (measurand) is varying rapidly.
Static Characteristics

1) Accuracy 9) Resolution
2) Static Error 10) Drift
3) Precision 11) Dead Zone
4) Repeatability 12) Span
5) Reproducibility 13) Scale Range
6) Tolerance
7) Linearity
8) Sensetivity
Static Characteristics

1) Accuracy:-
 may be defined as the degree of
closeness with which the instrument
reading approaching the true value of
the quantity to be measured.
The measured quantity may be different
from the true value due to the effects of
temperature, humidity, etc.,
Static Characteristics

2) Static Error:-
 The difference between the true value
of the measuring quantity to the value
shown by the measuring instrument under
not varying process conditions.
Static error = True value of a measured
variable – Instrument reading.
+ Ve Static error means Instrument reads
high,
– Ve Static error means Instrument
reading low
Static Characteristics

3) Pricision:-
Precision is defined as the ability of
instrument to reproduce a certain set of
readings within given accuracy.

Reading Shown
V1 145 145 145 145
V2 149.1 150.1 149.5 149.6
Static Characteristics

3) Pricision:-
Static Characteristics

4) Repeatability:-
Repeatability is defined as ability of
instrument to reproduce a group of
measurements of same measured
quantity, made by same observer, using
same instrument, under same conditions.
Static Characteristics

5) Reproduceability:-
Under the different measurement
conditions, if the successive
measurements of the same variable
produce agreed results are called
Reproducibility.
Static Characteristics

6) Tolerance:-
A certain amount of error will
inevitably occur between the measured
value and the true value. What is
important is to specify the allowable
range of errors. In terms of
measurement, the difference between the
maximum and minimum dimensions of
permissible errors is called the
"tolerance."
Static Characteristics

6) Tolerance:-
Static Characteristics
7) Linearity:-
This is the closeness to a straight
line of the relationship between the true
process variable and the measurement.
i.e. deviation of transducer output curve
from a specified straight line.
Static Characteristics
8) Sensetivity:-
 It is the smallest change in value of a
measured variable to which an
instrument responds.
 It can be also defined as it is the ratio of
change in output signal to change in
input signal
Static Characteristics

9) Resolution:-
 It is the smallest quantity being
measured which can be detected with
certainty by an instrument.
 If a non zero input quantity is slowly
increased, the output reading won’t
increase until some minimum change in
the input takes place. The minimum
change which causes the change in
output is termed resolution.
Static Characteristics
10) Drift:-
It is defined as the variation of
output for a given input caused due to
change in sensitivity of the instrument
due to certain interfering inputs like
temperature changes, component
instabilities, etc.

Drift

Zero Sensitivi Zonal

Drift ty Drift Drift
Static Characteristics
10) Drift:-
Dynamic Characteristics

1) Time of Response
2) Fidelity
3) Lag
4) Dynamic Error
Dynamic Characteristics

1) Time of Response:-
 It is defined as the rapidity with
which a measurement system responds to
changes in the measured quantity.
Dynamic Characteristics

2) Fidelity:-
 It is defined as the degree to which
a measuring instrument is capable of
faithfully reproducing the changes in
input, without any dynamic error.
Dynamic Characteristics

3) Lag:-
 Every system takes at least some
time to respond, whatever time it may be
to the changes in the measured variable.
4) Dynamic Error:-
 The difference between the true
value of the measured quantity to the
value shown by the measuring
instrument under varying conditions.
 विचलन

Errors in Measurements: Types, Definition,

Examples, Systematic Error, Random errors
defination of error :it is defference between
measure value and true value. Or deviation
(विचलन)of true value from the desired value
Types of Errors

Types of
Error

Systematic Random
Gross Error
Error Error

Instrumental Environment Observation

Errors al Errors al Error
Types of Errors
There are three types of errors that are classified based on the source they arise from; They are:
1.Gross Errors
2.Random Errors
3.Systematic Errors

1.Gross Errors:
-This category error is due to human mistakes while reading, recording observation.
-error are may be also occur due to incorrect adjustment of instrument and calculation error.
- For example, the person taking the reading from the meter of the instrument may read 23 but
human record it 32.
-Proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data. Also, the calculation of error should
be done accurately.
-By increasing the number of experimenters, we can reduce the gross errors.

2.Random Errors
-The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly .
-These can arise due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental conditions
(Example: unpredictable fluctuations in temperature, voltage supply, mechanical vibrations of
experimental set-ups, etc.
3.Systematic Errors:
Systematic errors can be better understood if we divide them into subgroups; They are:
a)Environmental Errors
b)Observational Errors
c)Instrumental Error
a)Environmental Errors:
-This type of error arises in the measurement due to the effect of the external conditions on the
measurement.
- The external condition includes temperature, pressure, and humidity and can also include an
external magnetic field. If you measure your temperature under the armpits (बगल) and during the
measurement, if the electricity goes out and the room gets hot, it will affect your body temperature,
affecting the reading.

b)Observational Errors: These are the errors that arise due to an individual’s bias, lack of proper setting
of the apparatus, or an individual’s carelessness in taking observations. The measurement errors also
include wrong readings due to Parallax errors
c)Instrumental error :
1)An inherent constraint of devices :
-these type of error is due to the mechanical structure of measurment
instrument
-it also due to the instrument to read too low or too high.
-Suppose the spring of pmmc has to became weak so reading show
high.

2)Misuse of Apparatus :
-improper handlig of instrument cause parmanant damage to the
instrument.

3)Effect of Loading:
-this type of error is due to introduction of any element in system
Three types of torques

1.Deffecting Torque (Td)

2. Controlling Torque (Tc)
3.Damping Torque (Tdm)
1 Deflecting Torque :
-This type of torque deflect pointer away from the null or zero position orThe
deflecting torque moves the pointer on a calibrated scale.
- This torque is proportional quantity under measurement
-Its produce due to the quantity under measurement,by converting electrical
energy into mechanical energy.

2
.Controlling Torque (Tc)
-It has main two function of the controlling torque is
1.To stop the pointer at the correct position
2. To bring the pointer back to the zero position when the quantity
under measurement is zero
-As soon as pointer get deflected, controlling torque is produce .
-Controlling torque is produced by two methods
-The controlling torque (T) opposite to the direction of deflecting
torque
-The pointer comes to rest at a position where the two opposing
torques are equal (Tc = Ta).
-The controlling torque brings the pointer back to zero when the
deflecting torque is removed.
-The controlling torque in indicating instruments is provided either by
spring control or gravity control.
What is Damping Torque?
Damping torque is defined as the physical process of
controlling the movement of a system by producing
the motion such that it opposes the natural oscillation
of the system.
An indicating instrument provides the damping torque.
Due to the inertia of the moving system, subjected to
deflecting and restoring torques, a number of vibration
will be produced before coming finally to rest.
To avoid this, a damping torque is required which
opposes the motion and makes the pointer Comes to
rest.
The degree of damping should be adjusted to a value
which is sufficient to enable the pointer to rise quickly
to its deflected position without Over- Shooting.
Production of Damping Torque
There are four ways of producing damping torque, and they
are:
•Air friction damping
•Fluid friction damping
•Eddy current damping
•Electromagnetic damping
Air Friction Damping
The air friction damping is created in an air chamber by
moving the piston in and out. As the piston enters the
chamber, compression is caused inside the chamber. As the
piston moves out of the chamber, a force is experienced by
it.
Air friction damping is the best suitable method of damping
torque where the electric field is relatively weak.
This is due to the absence of electric components in air
damping friction which could deform the electric field.
Air Friction Damping
Fluid Friction Damping
The fluid friction damping is created due to the
oscillation of the disk in and out of the liquid. The
liquid that is generally used is oil. The working of
the fluid friction damping is similar to that of the
air friction damping. The only difference is that
instead of air, fluid is used in the chamber.
Eddy Current Damping
In eddy current damping, eddy current and electric
fields are used for creating an electromagnetic
torque that can oppose the motion.
The damping torque produced in the eddy current
damping is proportional to the strength of the
current and the magnetic field.
Eddy current damping is considered to be one of the
most efficient methods of damping torque.
Electromagnetic Damping
Electromagnetic damping can be achieved by
passing the electric current through a magnetic
coil such that the torque generated is acting
against the natural movement of the coil.
Ques: Describe with block diagram; the construction of
single phase electronic energy meter.
Ans: Construction of Single Phase Electronic Energy Meter:
OR Any other equivalent layout diagram
1. CT reduces current to reasonable value for current
scaling network
2. Voltage & current scaling networks reduce proportionally
the voltage & current to values suitable for the analog
multiplier.
3. Analog multiplier gives a dc voltage proportional to the
product of the voltage and current drawn from supply that is
the power drawn.
4. The voltage controlled oscillator gives a frequency
proportional to its input (which is proportional to the
power).
5. The ADC converts the square wave frequency analog
output to display the energy in Watt-hour
Labeled diagram of 3-phase electronic energy meter :
Que:State the working principle of PMMC
Analog instrument.
Ans: Working Principal of PMMC Analog
Instrument: When current carrying conductor
is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences
mechanical force.
In PMMC instrument, when current flows
through a coil placed in the gap between the
poles, force is produced on the coil.
The coil rotates and pointer attached to the
coil shows deflection proportional to the
current magnitude.
Types of Errors

Gross Error:-
 Manual errors in reading instruments or recording
and calculating measurement results are known as
Gross errors. Generally, these errors occur during
the experiments, where the experimenter might read
or record a value different from the actual one,
probably due to poor sight. With human
involvement, these errors are inevitable, though
they can be anticipated and rectified.
 These errors can be prevented by the taking the
below-given couple of measures:
 Precautious reading and recording of data.
 Taking multiple readings, by different persons. A close
agreement between different readings ensures removal of
any gross error.
Types of Errors

Instrumental Error:-
 These errors occur due to shortcomings in
the instruments, improper use of instruments or
loading effect of the instrument.
 Sometimes improper construction,
calibration or operation of an instrument might
result in some inherent errors. For example, weak
spring in a Permanent Magnet Instrument might
result in too high readings.
 These errors can be easily detected or
reduced by applying correction factors, careful
planning of measurement procedure or re-
calibrating the instrument.
Types of Errors

Observational Error:-
 These errors occur due to a
mismatch between a line of vision of the
observer and the pointer above the
instrument scale.
 These errors can be minimized by
using highly accurate meters (having the
pointer and scale on the same plane).
Types of Errors

Environmental Error:-
 These errors occur due to external
ambient conditions of the instrument.
These conditions include changes in
temperature, humidity, availability of
dust, vibrations or effects of external
magnetic or electrostatic fields.
Types of Errors

Random Error:-
 These errors occur due to a group
of small factors which fluctuate from
one measurement to another. The
situations or disturbances which cause
these errors are unknown, hence they
are termed as Random errors.
Calibration

Definition:-
 Calibration is a comparison
between a known measurement (the
standard) and the measurement using
your instrument. Typically, the accuracy
of the standard should be ten times the
accuracy of the measuring device being
tested
Calibration

Calibration of Ammeter:-
Calibration

Calibration of Voltmeter:-
Calibration

Calibration of Wattmeter:-