Relations

Chapter 9

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Chapter Summary
Relations and Their Properties
n-ary Relations and Their Applications (not
currently included in overheads)
Representing Relations
Closures of Relations (not currently included
in overheads)
Equivalence Relations
Partial Orderings
Relations and Their
Properties
Section 9.1
Section Summary
Relations and Functions
Properties of Relations
Reflexive Relations
Symmetric and Antisymmetric Relations
Transitive Relations
Combining Relations
Binary Relations
to a set B is a subset R ⊆ A × B.
Definition: A binary relation R from a set A

Example:
Let A = {0,1,2} and B = {a,b}
{(0, a), (0, b), (1,a) , (2, b)} is a relation from A
to B.
We can represent relations from a set A to a set
B graphically or using a table:
Relations are more general
than functions. A function is a
relation where exactly one
element of B is related to each
element of A.
Binary Relation on a Set
subset of A × A or a relation from A to A.
Definition: A binary relation R on a set A is a

Example:
Suppose that A = {a,b,c}. Then R = {(a,a),

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. The ordered pairs in the

(a,b), (a,c)} is a relation on A.

relation R = {(a,b) | a divides b} are

(1,1), (1, 2), (1,3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3),
and (4, 4).
Binary Relation on a Set (cont.)
Question: How many relations are there on a set
A?

thing as a subset of A ⨉ A, we count the subsets

Solution: Because a relation on A is the same

of A × A. Since A × A has n elements

2
2| A|2
when

2m subsets, there are subsets of A × A.

2
A has n elements, and a2set
| A|
with m elements has

Therefore, there are relations on a set A.

Binary Relations on a Set (cont.)
R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b}, R4 = {(a,b) | a = b},
Example: Consider these relations on the set of integers:

R2 = {(a,b) | a > b}, R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1},

R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b}, R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3}.
Note that these relations are on an infinite set and each of these
relations is an infinite set.

Which of these relations contain each of the pairs

(1,1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, −1), and (2, 2)?

that the pair (1,1) is in R1, R3, R4 , and R6: (1,2) is in R1 and R6: (2,1) is
Solution: Checking the conditions that define each relation, we see

in R2, R5, and R6: (1, −1) is in R2, R3, and R6 : (2,2) is in R1, R3, and R4.
Reflexive Relations
Definition: R is reflexive iff (a,a) ∊ R for every element
a ∊ A. Written symbolically, R is reflexive if and only if
∀x[x∊U ⟶ (x,x) ∊ R]
Example: The following relations on the integers are
If A = ∅ then the empty relation is
R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b},
reflexive:
reflexive vacuously. That is the

R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b},
empty relation on an empty set is

R4 = {(a,b) | a = b}.
reflexive!

The following relations are not reflexive:

R2 = {(a,b) | a > b} (note that 3 ≯ 3),
R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1} (note that 3 ≠3 + 1),
R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3} (note that 4 + 4 ≰ 3).
Symmetric Relations
Definition: R is symmetric iff (b,a) ∊ R whenever (a,b) ∊ R
for all a,b ∊ A. Written symbolically, R is symmetric if and
only if
∀x∀y [(x,y) ∊R ⟶ (y,x) ∊ R]
Example: The following relations on the integers are

R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b},
symmetric:

R4 = {(a,b) | a = b},
R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3}.
The following are not symmetric:
R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b} (note that 3 ≤ 4, but 4 ≰ 3),
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b} (note that 4 > 3, but 3 ≯ 4),
R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1} (note that 4 = 3 + 1, but 3 ≠4 + 1).
Antisymmetric Relations
Definition:A relation R on a set A such that for all a,b ∊ A if
(a,b) ∊ R and (b,a) ∊ R, then a = b is called antisymmetric.
Written symbolically, R is antisymmetric if and only if
∀x∀y [(x,y) ∊R ∧ (y,x) ∊ R ⟶ x = y]
 Example: The following relations on the integers are

R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b}, For any integer, if a a ≤ b

antisymmetric:

R2 = {(a,b) | a > b}, and a ≤ b , then a = b.

R4 = {(a,b) | a = b},
R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1}.
The following relations are not antisymmetric:
R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b}
(note that both (1,−1) and (−1,1) belong to R3),
R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3} (note that both (1,2) and (2,1) belong to R6).
Transitive Relations
whenever (a,b) ∊ R and (b,c) ∊ R, then (a,c) ∊ R, for all a,b,c ∊
Definition: A relation R on a set A is called transitive if

A. Written symbolically, R is transitive if and only if

∀x∀y ∀z[(x,y) ∊R ∧ (y,z) ∊ R ⟶ (x,z) ∊ R ]

R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b},
 Example: The following relations on the integers are transitive:
For every integer, a ≤ b
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b}, and b ≤ c, then b ≤ c.
R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b},
R4 = {(a,b) | a = b}.
The following are not transitive:
R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1} (note that both (3,2) and (4,3) belong to R5,
but not (3,3)),
R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3} (note that both (2,1) and (1,2) belong to R6,
but not (2,2)).
Combining Relations
Given two relations R1 and R2, we can

form new relations such as R1 ∪ R2, R1 ∩ R2,

combine them using basic set operations to

R1 − R2, and R2 − R1.

Example: Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,2,3,4}.
The relations R1 = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)} and

1 ∪ R2 ={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2),
R2 = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)} can
beRcombined
R1 ∩ R2 relations: R1 − R2 ={(2,2),
using basic set operations to
(3,3)}
form new

R2 − R1 ={(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}
={(1,1)} (3,3)}
Composition
Definition: Suppose
R1 is a relation from a set A to a set B.
R2 is a relation from B to a set C.

Then the composition (or composite) of R2

with R1, is a relation from A to C where
if (x,y) is a member of R1 and (y,z) is a
member of R2, then (x,z) is a member of R2∘ R1.
Representing the Composition of a
Relation
R1 m R2 w
a
x
n
b
y
o
c
p z

R1∘ R2 = {(b,D),
(b,B)}
Powers of a Relation
Definition: Let R be a binary relation on A. Then
the powers Rn of the relation R can be defined
inductively by:
 Basis Step: R1 = R
 Inductive Step: Rn+1 = Rn ∘ R
(see the slides for Section 9.3 for further insights)
The powers of a transitive relation are subsets of the
relation. This is established by the following

Theorem 1: The relation R on a set A is transitive

theorem:

iff Rn ⊆ R for n = 1,2,3 ….

(see the text for a proof via mathematical induction)
Representing Relations
Section 9.3
Section Summary
Representing Relations using Matrices
Representing Relations using Digraphs
Representing Relations Using Matrices
A relation between finite sets can be represented using a
zero-one matrix.
Suppose R is a relation from A = {a1, a2, …, am} to
B = {b1, b2, …, bn}.
 The elements of the two sets can be listed in any particular
arbitrary order. When A = B, we use the same ordering.
The relation R is represented by the matrix
MR = [mij], where

The matrix representing R has a 1 as its (i,j) entry when ai is

related to bj and a 0 if ai is not related to bj.
Examples of Representing Relations Using
Matrices
Example 1: Suppose that A = {1,2,3} and B

containing (a,b) if a ∈ A, b ∈ B, and a > b.

= {1,2}. Let R be the relation from A to B

What is the matrix representing R (assuming

the ordering of elements is the same as the
increasing numerical order)?
Solution: Because R = {(2,1), (3,1),(3,2)},
the matrix is
Examples of Representing Relations Using
Matrices (cont.)
Example 2: Let A = {a1,a2, a3} and B = {b1,b2,
b3,b4, b5}. Which ordered pairs are in the relation
R represented by the matrix

pairs (ai,bj) with mij = 1, it follows that:

Solution: Because R consists of those ordered

R = {(a1, b2), (a2, b1),(a2, b3), (a2, b4),(a3, b1), {(a3, b3), (a3,
b5)}.
Matrices of Relations on Sets
the main diagonal of MR are equal to 1.
If R is a reflexive relation, all the elements on

1 whenever mji = 1. R is an antisymmetric

 R is a symmetric relation, if and only if mij =

relation, if and only if mij = 0 or mji = 0 when

i≠ j.
Example of a Relation on a Set
Example 3: Suppose that the relation R on a
set is represented by the matrix

Is R reflexive, symmetric, and/or

antisymmetric?

are equal to 1, R is reflexive. Because MR is

Solution: Because all the diagonal elements

symmetric, R is symmetric and not

antisymmetric because both m1,2 and m2,1 are
1.
Representing Relations Using Digraphs
Definition: A directed graph, or digraph, consists of a set V of
vertices (or nodes) together with a set E of ordered pairs of
elements of V called edges (or arcs). The vertex a is called the
initial vertex of the edge (a,b), and the vertex b is called the
terminal vertex of this edge.
 An edge of the form (a,a) is called a loop.

Example 7: A drawing of the directed graph with vertices a, b, c,

and d, and edges (a, b), (a, d), (b, b), (b, d), (c, a), (c, b), and (d, b)
is shown here.
Examples of Digraphs Representing
Relations
Example 8: What are the ordered pairs in the
relation
represented by this directed graph?

Solution: The ordered pairs in the relation

(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3,
are

3), (4, 1), and (4, 3)

Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph

Reflexivity: A loop must be present at all

Symmetry: If (x,y) is an edge, then so is (y,x).

vertices in the graph.

Antisymmetry: If (x,y) with x ≠ y is an edge,

Transitivity: If (x,y) and (y,z) are edges, then

then (y,x) is not an edge.

so is (x,z).
Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph – Example 1

a b

c d

• Reflexive? No, not every vertex has a loop

• Symmetric? Yes (trivially), there is no edge from one vertex to
another
• Antisymmetric? Yes (trivially), there is no edge from one vertex
to another
• Transitive? Yes, (trivially) since there is no edge from one vertex
Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph – Example 2

a
b

c d
• Reflexive? No, there are no loops
• Symmetric? No, there is an edge from a to b, but not from
b to a
• Antisymmetric? No, there is an edge from d to b and b to d
• Transitive? No, there are edges from a to c and from c to b,
but there is no edge from a to d
Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph – Example 3

a
b

c d
Reflexive? No, there are no loops
Symmetric? No, for example, there is no edge from c
to a
Antisymmetric? Yes, whenever there is an edge from
one
vertex to another, there is not one going back
Transitive? No, there is no edge from a to b
Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph – Example 4

b
a

c d
• Reflexive? No, there are no loops
• Symmetric? No, for example, there is no edge from d to a
• Antisymmetric? Yes, whenever there is an edge from one
vertex
to another, there is not one going back
• Transitive? Yes (trivially), there are no two edges where the
first
Example of the Powers of a Relation
a b a b

R2
d c d c
R

a b b
a

3
R4
d c d c
R
The pair (x,y) is in Rn if there is a path of length n from x to y in R
(following the direction of the arrows).
Equivalence Relations
Section 9.5
Section Summary
Equivalence Relations
Equivalence Classes
Equivalence Classes and Partitions
Equivalence Relations
Definition 1: A relation on a set A is called
an equivalence relation if it is reflexive,
symmetric, and transitive.

Definition 2: Two elements a, and b that are

equivalent. The notation a ∼ b is often used

related by an equivalence relation are called

to denote that a and b are equivalent

elements with respect to a particular
equivalence relation.
Strings
Example: Suppose that R is the relation on the set of strings of
English letters such that aRb if and only if l(a) = l(b), where l(x) is
the length of the string x. Is R an equivalence relation?

Solution: Show that all of the properties of an equivalence relation

hold.
 Reflexivity: Because l(a) = l(a), it follows that aRa for all strings
a.
 Symmetry: Suppose that aRb. Since l(a) = l(b), l(b) = l(a) also
holds and bRa.
 Transitivity: Suppose that aRb and bRc. Since l(a) = l(b),and l(b)
= l(c), l(a) = l(a) also holds and aRc.
Congruence Modulo m
Example: Let m be an integer with m > 1. Show that the relation
R = {(a,b) | a ≡ b (mod m)}
is an equivalence relation on the set of integers.

Solution: Recall that a ≡ b (mod m) if and only if m divides a − b.

 Reflexivity: a ≡ a (mod m) since a − a = 0 is divisible by m since
0 = 0 ∙ m.
 Symmetry: Suppose that a ≡ b (mod m). Then a − b is divisible by m,
and so a − b = km, where k is an integer. It follows that b − a = (− k)
m, so b ≡ a (mod m).
 Transitivity: Suppose that a ≡ b (mod m) and b ≡ c (mod m). Then m
divides both a − b and b − c. Hence, there are integers k and l with
a − b = km and b − c = lm. We obtain by adding the equations:
a − c = (a − b) + (b − c) = km + lm = (k + l) m.
Therefore, a ≡ c (mod m).
Divides
Example: Show that the “divides” relation on the set of
positive integers is not an equivalence relation.
Solution: The properties of reflexivity, and transitivity do
hold, but there relation is not transitive. Hence, “divides” is
not an equivalence relation.
 Reflexivity: a ∣ a for all a.
 Not Symmetric: For example, 2 ∣ 4, but 4 ∤ 2. Hence, the relation
is not symmetric.
 Transitivity: Suppose that a divides b and b divides c. Then there
are positive integers k and l such that b = ak and c = bl. Hence,
c = a(kl), so a divides c. Therefore, the relation is transitive.
Equivalence Classes
Definition 3: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set of all
elements that are related to an element a of A is called the equivalence class of
a. The equivalence class of a with respect to R is denoted by [a]R.
When only one relation is under consideration, we can write [a], without the
subscript R, for this equivalence class.

Note that [a]R = {s|(a,s) ∈ R}.

 If b ∈ [a]R, then b is called a representative of this equivalence class. Any

element of a class can be used as a representative of the class.
 The equivalence classes of the relation congruence modulo m are called the

denoted by [a]m, so [a]m = {…, a−2m, a−m, a+2m, a+2m, … }. For example,
congruence classes modulo m. The congruence class of an integer a modulo m is

[0]4 = {…, −8, −4 , 0, 4 , 8 , …} [1]4 = {…, −7, −3 , 1, 5 , 9 , …}

[2]4 = {…, −6, −2 , 2, 6 , 10 , …} [3]4 = {…, −5, −1 , 3, 7 , 11 , …}

Equivalence Classes and Partitions
Theorem 1: let R be an equivalence relation on a
set A. These statements for elements a and b of A
are equivalent:
(i) aRb

(iii) [a] ∩ [b] = ∅

(ii) [a] = [b]

Proof: We show that (i) implies (ii). Assume that aRb.

Now suppose that c ∈ [a]. Then aRc. Because aRb and

and aRc, it follows that bRc. Hence, c ∈ [b]. Therefore,

R is symmetric, bRa. Because R is transitive and bRa

[a]⊆ [b]. A similar argument (omitted here) shows that

[b]⊆ [a]. Since [a]⊆ [b] and [b]⊆ [a], we have shown
that(see
[a] text
= [b].
for proof that (ii) implies (iii) and (iii)
implies (i))
Partition of a Set
Definition: A partition of a set S is a
collection of disjoint nonempty subsets of S

collection of subsets Ai, where i ∈ I (where I

that have S as their union. In other words, the

is an index set), forms a partition of S if and

only if
Ai ≠ ∅ for i ∈ I,
Ai ∩ Aj=∅ when i ≠ j,
and

A Partition of a
Set
An Equivalence Relation Partitions a Set
Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The
union of all the equivalence classes of R is all of A,
since an element a of A is in its own equivalence
class [a]R. In other words,

From Theorem 1, it follows that these equivalence

classes are either equal or disjoint, so [a]R ∩[b]R=∅
when [a]R ≠ [b]R.
Therefore, the equivalence classes form a partition
of A, because they split A into disjoint subsets.
An Equivalence Relation Partitions a Set
(continued)
Theorem 2: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set S. Then the equivalence
classes of R form a partition of S. Conversely, given a partition {Ai | i ∈ I} of
the set S, there is an equivalence relation R that has the sets Ai, i ∈ I, as its
equivalence classes.

For the second part, assume that {Ai | i ∈ I} is a partition of S. Let R be the
Proof: We have already shown the first part of the theorem.

relation on S consisting of the pairs (x, y) where x and y belong to the same
subset Ai in the partition. We must show that R satisfies the properties of an
equivalence relation.
 Reflexivity: For every a ∈ S, (a,a) ∈ R, because a is in the same subset as itself.
 Symmetry: If (a,b) ∈ R, then b and a are in the same subset of the partition, so
(b,a) ∈ R.
 Transitivity: If (a,b) ∈ R and (b,c) ∈ R, then a and b are in the same subset of the

two subsets of the partition must be identical. Therefore, (a,c) ∈ R since a and c
partition, as are b and c. Since the subsets are disjoint and b belongs to both, the

belong to the same subset of the partition.

Partial Orderings
Section 9.6
Section Summary
Partial Orderings and Partially-ordered Sets
Lexicographic Orderings
Hasse Diagrams
Lattices (not currently in overheads)
Topological Sorting (not currently in
overheads)
Partial Orderings
Definition 1: A relation R on a set S is called
a partial ordering, or partial order, if it is
reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive. A set
together with a partial ordering R is called a
partially ordered set, or poset, and is denoted
by (S, R). Members of S are called elements
of the poset.
Partial Orderings (continued)
Example 1: Show that the “greater than or
equal” relation (≥) is a partial ordering on the
set of integers.
Reflexivity: a ≥ a for every integer a.
Antisymmetry: If a ≥ b and b ≥ a , then a = b.
Transitivity: If a ≥ b and b ≥ c , then a ≥ c.

the integers. (See Appendix 1).

These properties all follow from the order axioms for
Partial Orderings (continued)
Example 2: Show that the divisibility relation (∣)
is a partial ordering on the set of integers.
Reflexivity: a ∣ a for all integers a. (see Example 9 in
Section 9.1)

| b and b | a, then a = b. (see Example 12 in Section

Antisymmetry: If a and b are positive integers with a

9.1)
Transitivity: Suppose that a divides b and b divides
c. Then there are positive integers k and l such that
b = ak and c = bl. Hence, c = a(kl), so a divides c.

(Z+, ∣) is a poset.
Therefore, the relation is transitive.
Partial Orderings (continued)
Example 3: Show that the inclusion relation
(⊆) is a partial ordering on the power set of a

Reflexivity: A ⊆ A whenever A is a subset of S.

set S.

A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A, then A = B.
Antisymmetry: If A and B are positive integers

Transitivity: If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C.

with

The properties all follow from the

definition of set inclusion.
Comparability
Definition 2: The elements a and b of a poset (S,≼ ) are comparable
if either a ≼ b or b ≼ a. When a and b are elements of S so that
neither a ≼ b nor b ≼ a, then a and b are called incomparable.

The symbol ≼ is used to denote the relation

in any poset.

Definition 3: If (S,≼ ) is a poset and every two elements of S are

≼ is called a total order or a linear order. A totally ordered set is also

comparable, S is called a totally ordered or linearly ordered set, and

Definition 4: (S,≼ ) is a well-ordered set if it is a poset such that ≼ is

called a chain.

a total ordering and every nonempty subset of S has a least element.

Lexicographic Order
Definition: Given two posets (A1,≼1) and (A2,≼2), the lexicographic
ordering on A1 ⨉ A2 is defined by specifying that (a1, a2) is less
than (b1,b2), that is,
(a1, a2) ≺ (b1,b2),
either if a1 ≺1 b1 or if a1 = b1 and a2 ≺2 b2.
 This definition can be easily extended to a lexicographic ordering
on strings (see text).
Example: Consider strings of lowercase English letters. A
lexicographic ordering can be defined using the ordering of the
letters in the alphabet. This is the same ordering as that used in
dictionaries.
 discreet ≺ discrete, because these strings differ in the seventh
position and e ≺ t.
 discreet ≺ discreetness, because the first eight letters agree, but the
second string is longer.
Hasse Diagrams
Definition: A Hasse diagram is a visual representation of a
partial ordering that leaves out edges that must be present
because of the reflexive and transitive properties.

A partial ordering is shown in (a) of the figure above. The

loops due to the reflexive property are deleted in (b). The
edges that must be present due to the transitive property
are deleted in (c). The Hasse diagram for the partial
ordering (a), is depicted in (c).
Procedure for Constructing a Hasse
Diagram
To represent a finite poset (S,≼ ) using a
Hasse diagram, start with the directed graph
of the relation:
Remove the loops (a, a) present at every vertex
due to the reflexive property.

z ∈ S such that x ≺ z and z ≺ y.

Remove all edges (x, y) for which there is an
element
These are the edges that must be present due
to the transitive property.
Arrange each edge so that its initial vertex is
below the terminal vertex. Remove all the
arrows, because all edges point upwards