•Network Layer:

•Logical Addressing
 19-1 IPv4 ADDRESSES

An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and

universally defines the connection of a device (for
example, a computer or a router) to the Internet.

Topics discussed in this section:

Address Space
Notations
Classful Addressing
Classless Addressing
Network Address Translation (NAT)

19.2
Note
An IPv4 address is 32 bits long.

19.3
Note
The IPv4 addresses are unique
and universal.

19.4
Note
The address space of IPv4 is
232 or 4,294,967,296.
Figure 19.1 Dotted-decimal notation and binary notation for an IPv4 address

19.6
Note
Numbering systems are reviewed in Appendix B.

19.7
 Example 19.1

Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary notation

to dotted-decimal notation.

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal
number (see Appendix B) and add dots for separation.

19.8
 Example 19.2

Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal

notation to binary notation.

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent
(see Appendix B).

19.9
 Example 19.3

Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.

Solution
a. There must be no leading zero (045).
b. There can be no more than four numbers.
c. Each number needs to be less than or equal to 255.
d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal
notation is not allowed.
19.10
Note
In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes:
A, B, C, D, and E.

19.11
Figure 19.2 Finding the classes in binary and dotted-decimal notation

19.12
 Example 19.4

Find the class of each address.

a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111

Solution
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C
address.
c. The first byte is 14; the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252; the class is E.
19.13
Table 19.1 Number of blocks and block size in classful IPv4 addressing

19.14
Note
In classful addressing, a large part of the available addresses were
wasted.

19.15
Table 19.2 Default masks for classful addressing

19.16
Note
Classful addressing, which is almost obsolete, is replaced with
classless addressing.

19.17
 Example 19.5

Figure 19.3 shows a block of addresses, in both binary and

dotted-decimal notation, granted to a small business that
needs 16 addresses.

We can see that the restrictions are applied to this block.

The addresses are contiguous. The number of addresses is
a power of 2 (16 = 24), and the first address is divisible by
16. The first address, when converted to a decimal number,
is 3,440,387,360, which when divided by 16 results in
215,024,210.

19.18
Figure 19.3 A block of 16 addresses granted to a small organization

19.19
Note
In IPv4 addressing, a block of
addresses can be defined as
x.y.z.t /n
in which x.y.z.t defines one of the addresses and the /n defines the
mask.

19.20
Note
The first address in the block can be found by setting the rightmost
32 − n bits to 0s.

19.21
 Example 19.6

A block of addresses is granted to a small organization. We

know that one of the addresses is 205.16.37.39/28. What is
the first address in the block?

Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32−28 rightmost bits to 0, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 0010000
or
205.16.37.32.
This is actually the block shown in Figure 19.3.
19.22
Note
The last address in the block can be found by setting the rightmost
32 − n bits to 1s.

19.23
 Example 19.7

Find the last address for the block in Example 19.6.

Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111
or
205.16.37.47
This is actually the block shown in Figure 19.3.

19.24
Note
The number of addresses in the block can be found by using the
formula
232−n.

19.25
 Example 19.8

Find the number of addresses in Example 19.6.

Solution
The value of n is 28, which means that number
of addresses is 2 32−28 or 16.

19.26
 Example 19.9

Another way to find the first address, the last address, and
the number of addresses is to represent the mask as a 32-
bit binary (or 8-digit hexadecimal) number. This is
particularly useful when we are writing a program to find
these pieces of information. In Example 19.5 the /28 can be
represented as
11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000
(twenty-eight 1s and four 0s).

Find
a. The first address
b. The last address
c. The number of addresses. 19.27
 Example 19.9 (continued)

Solution
a. The first address can be found by ANDing the given
addresses with the mask. ANDing here is done bit by
bit. The result of ANDing 2 bits is 1 if both bits are 1s;
the result is 0 otherwise.

19.28
 Example 19.9 (continued)

b. The last address can be found by ORing the given

addresses with the complement of the mask. ORing
here is done bit by bit. The result of ORing 2 bits is 0 if
both bits are 0s; the result is 1 otherwise. The
complement of a number is found by changing each 1
to 0 and each 0 to 1.

19.29
 Example 19.9 (continued)

c. The number of addresses can be found by

complementing the mask, interpreting it as a decimal
number, and adding 1 to it.

19.30
Figure 19.4 A network configuration for the block 205.16.37.32/28

19.31
Note
The first address in a block is
normally not assigned to any device;
it is used as the network address that represents the organization
to the rest of the world.

19.32
Figure 19.5 Two levels of hierarchy in an IPv4 address

19.33
Figure 19.6 A frame in a character-oriented protocol

19.34
Note
Each address in the block can be considered as a two-level
hierarchical structure:
the leftmost n bits (prefix) define
the network;
the rightmost 32 − n bits define
the host.

19.35
Figure 19.7 Configuration and addresses in a subnetted network

19.36
Figure 19.8 Three-level hierarchy in an IPv4 address

19.37
 Example 19.10

An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with

190.100.0.0/16 (65,536 addresses). The ISP needs to
distribute these addresses to three groups of customers as
follows:
a. The first group has 64 customers; each needs 256
addresses.
b. The second group has 128 customers; each needs 128
addresses.
c. The third group has 128 customers; each needs 64
addresses.
Design the subblocks and find out how many addresses are
still available after these allocations.
19.38
 Example 19.10 (continued)

Solution
Figure 19.9 shows the situation.
Group 1
For this group, each customer needs 256 addresses. This
means that 8 (log2 256) bits are needed to define each
host. The prefix length is then 32 − 8 = 24. The addresses
are

19.39
 Example 19.10 (continued)

Group 2
For this group, each customer needs 128 addresses. This
means that 7 (log2 128) bits are needed to define each
host. The prefix length is then 32 − 7 = 25. The addresses
are

19.40
 Example 19.10 (continued)

Group 3
For this group, each customer needs 64 addresses. This
means that 6 (log264) bits are needed to each host. The
prefix length is then 32 − 6 = 26. The addresses are

Number of granted addresses to the ISP: 65,536

Number of allocated addresses by the ISP: 40,960
Number of available addresses: 24,576
19.41
Figure 19.9 An example of address allocation and distribution by an ISP

19.42
Table 19.3 Addresses for private networks

19.43
Example
Example

19.48
19.49
19.50
 What is Subnetting?
•Definition: Subnetting is the process of splitting a single IP
network into smaller, distinct networks (subnets).
•Purpose: Helps improve network organization,
performance, and security.
Why Use Subnetting?
1.Efficient IP Address Use: It allows better utilization of IP
addresses by allocating smaller blocks to different networks.
2.Improved Performance: Reduces network congestion by
limiting the size of broadcast domains.
3.Enhanced Security: Different subnets can be isolated
from each other, improving overall security.
 FLSM (Fixed-Length Subnet Mask)
VLSM (Variable-Length Subnet
Mask)
•Same Size: All subnets have the same number of addresses.
•Simple: Easy to manage but can waste IPs.

VLSM (Variable-Length Subnet Mask)

•Different Sizes: Subnets can have varying numbers of

addresses based on need.
•Efficient: Better use of IPs, but more complex to manage.
Summary
•FLSM: Equal slices of pizza.
•VLSM: Slices of different sizes based on appetite.

19.52
1. What is CIDR?
•CIDR: A way to allocate IP addresses more flexibly than the old method
(Class A, B, C).
2. CIDR Notation
•Format: An IP address followed by a slash and a number.
• Example: 192.168.1.0/24
• 192.168.1.0: The network address.
• /24: Means the first 24 bits are for the network, leaving the
rest for devices.
3. Why Use CIDR?
•Efficiency: Makes better use of IP addresses.
•Less Waste: Helps avoid running out of IPs.
•Simpler Routing: Makes routing tables smaller and easier to manage.
Summary
•CIDR: Flexible IP address system.
•Notation: IP + /number (e.g., 192.168.1.0/24).
•Benefits: Saves IPs and simplifies routing.
Finding the Subnet Mask

You need to create 8 subnets from the network 192.168.0.0.

What is the subnet mask you would use?
Solution:
1.Number of Subnets Needed: 8
2.Calculate Bits Needed:
1. 23=82^3 = 823=8 (you need 3 bits).
3.Starting from /24 (default for Class C):
1. New Subnet Mask: /24 + 3 = /27 (255.255.255.224).

19.54
Calculate Usable Hosts
Given the subnet 192.168.2.0/29, how many usable IP
addresses are there?
Solution:
1.Host Bits: 32 - 29 = 3 bits.
2.Usable Hosts Calculation:
23−2=8−2=6 usable IP addresses.2^3 - 2 = 8 - 2 = 6 \
text{ usable IP addresses.}23−2=8−2=6 usable IP addresses.

19.55
 Classify the IP Address

Identify the class of the following IP addresses:

1.192.168.1.10
2.10.0.0.1
3.172.16.5.5
4.209.165.200.1

Solutions:

1.192.168.1.10: Class C
2.10.0.0.1: Class A
3.172.16.5.5: Class B
4.209.165.200.1: Class C

19.56
Identify the Network Address

What is the network address for the IP 172.20.10.15 with a

subnet mask of 255.255.255.240?

Solution:
1.Subnet Mask in Binary: 255.255.255.240 →
11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000
2.IP Address in Binary: 172.20.10.15 →
10101100.00010100.00001010.00001111
3.Perform AND operation:
1. Result: 172.20.10.0 (Network Address).

Let's clarify the AND operation used in Problem 4, where we

identify the network address for the IP 172.20.10.15 with a
subnet mask of 255.255.255.240.
Given:
•IP Address: 172.20.10.15
•Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.240
19.58
 How Subnetting Works
1.IP Address Breakdown: An IP address is
made up of two parts:
1.Network Portion: Identifies the specific
network.
2.Host Portion: Identifies individual devices
(hosts) within that network.
2.Subnet Mask: A subnet mask defines how
many bits are used for the network portion
versus the host portion. For example:
1.Class C Address: 192.168.1.0
2.Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0 (or
/24 in CIDR notation)
3.Subnetting: If you change the subnet
mask to 255.255.255.192 (or /26), you
create 4 subnets (each with 64 addresses).
19.59
 Example of Subnetting
•Original Network: 192.168.1.0/24 (supports
256 addresses)
•Subnetting into 4 Subnets:
• Subnet 1: 192.168.1.0/26 (Addresses
192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.62)
• Subnet 2: 192.168.1.64/26 (Addresses
192.168.1.65 to 192.168.1.126)
• Subnet 3: 192.168.1.128/26 (Addresses
192.168.1.129 to 192.168.1.190)
• Subnet 4: 192.168.1.192/26 (Addresses
192.168.1.193 to 192.168.1.254)

19.60
 Summary
•Subnetting breaks a larger network into smaller
sub-networks, making them easier to manage and
more efficient.
•It uses a subnet mask to determine how many
networks and hosts can exist.

19.61
In the notation 192.168.1.0/26, the "/26" is known as CIDR
(Classless Inter-Domain Routing) notation. It indicates how
many bits are used for the network portion of the IP address.
Breakdown of "/26"
•Total Bits: An IPv4 address consists of 32 bits.
•Network Bits: The "/26" means that the first 26 bits are used
for the network part of the address.
•Host Bits: The remaining bits (32 - 26 = 6 bits) are used for
the host part of the address.
Calculation of Subnets and Hosts
•Subnets: With a /26 subnet mask, you can create multiple
subnets from a larger network.
•Hosts per Subnet: The number of usable host addresses can
be calculated using the formula:
•Usable Hosts=2Host Bits−2\text{Usable Hosts} = 2^{\
text{Host Bits}} - 2Usable Hosts=2Host Bits−2For /26:
• Host Bits: 6
• Calculation: 26−2=64−2=622^6 - 2 = 64 - 2 =
6226−2=64−2=62
•(The subtraction of 2 accounts for the network address and the
broadcast address, which cannot be assigned to hosts.)

19.62
Summary
•192.168.1.0/26 means:
• The first 26 bits represent the network.
• The remaining 6 bits can accommodate 62 usable IP
addresses for devices (hosts) within that subnet.

19.63
19.69
Figure 19.10 A Network Address Translation implementation
NAT

19.72
Figure 19.11 Addresses in a NAT

19.73
Figure 19.12 NAT address translation

19.74
Table 19.4 Five-column translation table

19.75
Figure 19.13 An ISP and NAT

19.76
 19-2 IPv6 ADDRESSES

Despite all short-term solutions, address depletion is

still a long-term problem for the Internet. This and
other problems in the IP protocol itself have been the
motivation for IPv6.

Topics discussed in this section:

Structure
Address Space

19.77
Note
An IPv6 address is 128 bits long.

19.78
Figure 19.14 IPv6 address in binary and hexadecimal colon notation

19.79
Figure 19.15 Abbreviated IPv6 addresses

19.80
 Example 19.11

Expand the address 0:15::1:12:1213 to its original.

Solution
We first need to align the left side of the double colon to the
left of the original pattern and the right side of the double
colon to the right of the original pattern to find how many
0s we need to replace the double colon.

This means that the original address is.

19.81
Table 19.5 Type prefixes for IPv6 addresses

19.82
Table 19.5 Type prefixes for IPv6 addresses (continued)

19.83
Figure 19.16 Prefixes for provider-based unicast address

19.84
Figure 19.17 Multicast address in IPv6

19.85
Figure 19.18 Reserved addresses in IPv6

19.86
Figure 19.19 Local addresses in IPv6

19.87