Memory

Basic Ideas
 Memory: the persistence of learning over time through the storage
and retrieval of information.
 Recall: a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve
information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
 Recognition: a measure of memory in which the person need only
identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
 Relearning: a measure of memory that assesses the amount of
time.
 Architects make miniature house models to help clients imagine
their future homes. Similarly, psychologists create memory
models to help us think about how our brain forms and retrieves
memories. Information-processing models are analogies that
compare human memory to a computer’s operations. Thus, to
remember any event, we must.
 get information into our brain, a process called encoding.
 retain that information, a process called storage.
 later get the information back out, a process called retrieval.
 Types of Memory
 Short - term memory: activated memory that holds a few items
briefly, such as seven digits of a phone number while dialing,
before the information is stored or forgotten.
 Long - term memory: the relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and
experiences.
 Working memory: a newer understanding of short - term memory
that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory
and visual - spatial information, and of information retrieved from
long - term memory.
 Types of Memory
 Episodic Memory; Personal, Past Experiences, Experiences as little
images, films or scenes. It is highly subjective.
 Semantic Memory; Words, Numbers, Names, Concepts, Objects as
it is shared by everyone e.g. (Birds Chirping)
 Procedural Memory; Skills Based learning. (e.g. riding a bike)
 Implicit and Explicit Memory
 Explicit Memory
These are the memories that require the conscious effort of recalling. As a friend, baby shower three
years ago or the knowledge like the earth is a planet.
• Episodic: These comprise the events of one’s life. For example, the graduation day, a particular
Christmas morning, etc. These memories are edited by brain overtime when we recall them in
specific contexts. They are not very reliable. Brain's ability to retain episodic memory depends on
the number of sensory stimuli involved and emotions.
• Semantic: These memories are the general facts and knowledge of things around us. Like cats are
mammals, earth has one moon, and a year has twelve months. These memories get updated with
new pieces of information. The phenomenon of forgetting is involved in making a place for new
facts without cause cognitive dissonance.
 Implicit memory
These memories do not involve active or conscious recalling. They are mostly procedural. For
example, shift car gear, riding a bike.
Anterograde Amnesia:
Inability to remember new information after the onset of brain injury.
Retrograde Amnesia:
Inability to remember old information before the onset of brain
injury.
 Memory a Complex Structure
 It seems that our memory is located not in one particular place in the brain, but is instead a brain-
wide process in which several different areas of the brain act in conjunction with one another
(sometimes referred to as distributed processing).
 For example, the simple act of riding a bike is actively and seamlessly reconstructed by the brain
from many different areas: the memory of how to operate the bike comes from one area, the
memory of how to get from here to the end of the block comes from another, the memory of
biking safety rules from another, and that nervous feeling when a car veers dangerously close
comes from still another. Each element of a memory (sights, sounds, words, emotions) is encoded
in the same part of the brain that originally created that fragment (visual cortex, motor cortex,
language area, etc), and recall of a memory effectively reactivates the neural patterns generated
during the original encoding.
 Levels of Processing Model
 The levels-of-processing model was proposed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart in
1972, and posits that memory recall, and the extent to which something is memorized, is a
function of the depth of mental processing, on a continuous scale from shallow (perceptual)
to deep (semantic). Under this model, there is no real structure to memory and no distinction
between short-term and long-term memory.
 Shallow Processing
This takes two forms
 1 . Structural processing (appearance) which is when we encode only the physical qualities of
something. E.g. the typeface of a word or how the letters look.
 2 . Phonemic processing – which is when we encode its sound.
Shallow processing only involves maintenance rehearsal (repetition to help us hold something in
the STM) and leads to fairly short-term retention of information.
 Encoding: the processing of information into the memory system
—for example, by extracting meaning.
 Storage: the retention of encoded information over time.
 Retrieval: the process of getting information out of memory
storage.
 Sensory memory: the immediate, very brief recording of sensory
information in the memory system
 Real-Life Applications
 This explanation of memory is useful in everyday life because it highlights the way in
which elaboration, which requires deeper processing of information, can aid memory.
Three examples of this are.
• Reworking – putting information in your own words or talking about it with someone
else.
• Method of loci – when trying to remember a list of items, linking each with a
familiar place or route.
• Imagery – by creating an image of something you want to remember, you elaborate
on it and encode it visually (i.e. a mind map).
 Strengths
 The theory is an improvement on Atkinson & Shiffrin’s account of transfer from STM to LTM.
For example, elaboration rehearsal leads to recall of information than just maintenance rehearsal.
 The levels of processing model changed the direction of memory research. It showed that
encoding was not a simple, straightforward process. This widened the focus from seeing long-term
memory as a simple storage unit to seeing it as a complex processing system.
 Craik and Lockhart’s ideas led to hundreds of experiments, most of which confirmed the
superiourity of “deep” semantic processing for remembering information. It explains why we
remember some things much better and for much longer than others.
 This explanation of memory is useful in everyday life because it highlights the way in which
elaboration, which requires deeper processing of information, can aid memory.
 Weaknesses
 Despite these strengths, there are a number of criticisms of the levels of processing
theory:
• It does not explain how the deeper processing results in better memories.
• Deeper processing takes more effort than shallow processing and it could be this,
rather than the depth of processing that makes it more likely people will remember
something.
• The concept of depth is vague and cannot be observed. Therefore, it cannot be
objectively measured.
 MULTI STORE MODEL
 The multi-store model is an explanation of memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin which
assumes there are three unitary (separate) memory stores, and that information is
transferred between these stores in a linear sequence.
 The three main stores are the sensory memory, short-term memory (STM) and long-term
memory (LTM).
 Each of the memory stores differs in the way information is processed (encoding), how
much information can be stored (capacity), and for how long (duration).
 Information passes from store to store in a linear way, and has been described as an
information processing model (like a computer) with an input, process and output.
 Information is detected by the sense organs and enters the sensory memory, which stores a
fleeting impression of sensory stimuli. If attended to this information enters the STM and if
the information is given meaning (elaborative rehearsal) it is passed on to the LTM
 This model of memory as a sequence of three stages, from short term to long-
term memory, rather than as a unitary process, is known as the modal or multi-
store or Atkinson-Shiffrin model, after Richard Atkinson and Richard
Shiffrin who developed it in 1968, and it remains the most popular model for
studying memory.
The Multi Store Model
 Deep Processing
Semantic processing, which happens when we encode the meaning of a word and
relate it to similar words with similar meaning.

Deep processing involves elaboration rehearsal which involves a more meaningful

analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations etc.) of information and leads to better
recall.
For example, giving words a meaning or linking them with previous knowledge.
Levels of Processing Model
 Parts of Brain Involved in Memory
Technically our brain has many different compartments and they work differently to do certain functions. Not all of the brain is
involved in memory. Hippocampus is the main region of the brain involved in memory processes.
 When it comes to storing or making a memory Hippocampus is involved. It is the primary
regulator of the process of memory retention. It is a seahorse-shaped part of the
temporal lobe. It acts as a bridge in engaging all the parts of the brain required to keep a
memory. Although it is not involved in retrieving, formation and consolidation are highly
dependent on Hippocampus. Consolidation is the fixing or storing a memory
permanently.
 Suppose due to a dire turn of event someone you know had most of the part of his
Hippocampus removed. This person will not be able to remember anything new. Thus,
memories will not be retained. However, the ability to recall older memories that
happened before removing the Hippocampus will remain unaffected.
 The amygdala is involved in fear and fear memories. The
hippocampus is associated with declarative and episodic memory
as well as recognition memory. The cerebellum plays a role in
processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano.
The prefrontal cortex appears to be involved in remembering
semantic tasks.
 The limbic system represents a set of brain structures located on
both sides of the thalamus, immediately beneath the cerebral
cortex, and is important for a variety of functions including
emotion, motivation, long-term memory, and olfaction.
 Hippocampus
 Memory is a complex cognitive process that involves multiple areas of the brain working together to
encode, store, and retrieve information. Here's a more detailed overview of the key brain regions
involved in memory

• Location: Temporal lobe (in the medial part, within the limbic system).
• Role in Memory:
• The hippocampus is central to the formation of new declarative (explicit) memories, which include both
episodic memory (events and experiences) and semantic memory (facts and knowledge).
• It is essential for consolidation, the process of transferring short-term memories into long-term storage.
• The hippocampus also helps in spatial memory, which allows individuals to navigate their environment
and remember locations and directions.
• Damage to the hippocampus can lead to difficulties in forming new memories (anterograde amnesia),
although long-term memories formed before damage may remain intact.
 Amygdala
• Location: Temporal lobe, adjacent to the
hippocampus.
• Role in Memory:
• The amygdala is involved in emotional memory and
the processing of emotions, particularly fear.
• It enhances memory consolidation for emotional
events, making emotional memories more vivid and
easier to recall. This is why emotionally charged
experiences are often remembered more clearly.
• The amygdala interacts with the hippocampus,
allowing for the integration of emotion and memory.
It is crucial in the formation of emotional memory
and in the response to emotionally significant
events.
 The Amygdala
 The amygdala is an extremely important structure for the creation
and recall of both explicit and implicit memory. The main job of
the amygdala is to regulate emotions, such as fear and
aggression. The amygdala plays a part in how memories are
stored as information storage is influenced by emotions and
stress. the amygdala is also involved in memory consolidation: the
process of transferring new learning into long-term
memory. [consolidation=Rehearsal].
 The amygdala seems to facilitate encoding memories at a deeper
level when the event is emotionally arousing.
 Prefrontal Cortex
• Location: Frontal lobe, specifically in the dorsolateral
prefrontal cortex and ventromedial prefrontal
cortex.
• Role in Memory:
• The prefrontal cortex is important for working memory,
which involves holding and manipulating information in the
short-term for tasks such as reasoning, decision-making,
and planning.
• It helps organize and direct attention to important
memories, and is crucial for executive functions like
problem-solving, planning, and the retrieval of stored
information.
• It plays a role in memory retrieval, particularly in recalling
information that is stored in long-term memory, and is
involved in decision-making based on memories and prior
knowledge.
 Prefrontal cortex
 prefrontal cortex function is that it encodes task relevant
information in working memory (Baddeley, 2003). Many studies
have shown greater amounts of prefrontal cortex activity during
delay periods in working memory tasks demonstrating prefrontal
rehearsal processes leading to the transition of information from
short term working memory to long term memory (Wilson et al.,
1993; Levy & Goldman-Rakic, 2000).
 Cerebellum
• Location: At the back of the brain, below the
cerebrum, and above the brainstem.
• Role in Memory:
• The cerebellum is primarily associated with
motor control but is also involved in procedural
memory, which is the memory for skills and
learned actions.
• It helps store and refine motor memories related
to tasks like riding a bike, playing a musical
instrument, or performing other habitual
movements.
• The cerebellum is essential for classical
conditioning, particularly in the formation of
motor responses to stimuli.
 Cerebellum
 The cerebellum plays a large role in implicit memories (procedural
memory, motor learning, and classical conditioning). For example,
an individual with damage to their hippocampus will still
demonstrate a conditioning response to blink when they are given a
series of puffs of air to their eyes. However, when researchers
damaged the cerebellums of rabbits, they discovered that the
rabbits were not able to learn the conditioned eye-blink response
(Steinmetz, 1999; Green & Woodruff-Pak, 2000). This experiment
demonstrates the important role the cerebellum plays in the
formation of implicit memories and conditioned responses.
 Basal Ganglia
• Location: Deep within the cerebral
hemispheres.
• Role in Memory:
• The basal ganglia are involved in procedural
memory (memory of skills and habits) and in
the formation of motor routines.
• It is critical for the development of habits and
the ability to perform tasks without consciously
thinking about them (automatic actions).
• It interacts with other brain regions to integrate
sensory and motor information, facilitating the
learning of motor skills and repetitive behaviors.
 Temporal Lobe
• Location: Sides of the brain, around the ears.
• Role in Memory:
• The temporal lobe, in addition to housing the hippocampus, contains areas
that are essential for semantic memory, the memory for facts, concepts,
and general knowledge.
• The entorhinal cortex (a part of the temporal lobe) acts as a gateway
between the hippocampus and other cortical areas involved in long-term
memory.
• The parahippocampal gyrus is involved in memory encoding, retrieval,
and spatial memory. It helps form new memories and retrieve older ones.
 Occipital Lobe
• Location: At the back of the brain.
• Role in Memory:
• The occipital lobe is primarily involved in processing visual
information but also plays a role in visual memory, helping
individuals recognize faces, objects, and scenes.
• Visual memory is essential for recalling images and spatial layouts,
and the occipital lobe helps encode and store visual experiences.
• It interacts with other areas, including the temporal lobe, to create a
memory of visual stimuli.
 Parietal Lobe
• Location: Near the top and back of the brain.
• Role in Memory:
• The parietal lobe is involved in spatial memory and sensory
integration. It helps create a map of the body and the environment,
which is critical for navigation and memory of locations.
• It contributes to semantic memory and allows for the integration of
sensory input with stored knowledge.
• Damage to the parietal lobe can affect the ability to navigate the
environment or recognize objects and places.
 Thalamus
• Location: Deep in the brain, near the center.
• Role in Memory:
• The thalamus acts as a relay station,
transmitting information between different brain
regions.
• It is involved in sensory memory, particularly
in processing and transmitting sensory
information to higher brain areas for
interpretation and storage.
 Corpus Callosum
• Location: A large bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two
hemispheres of the brain.
• Role in Memory:
• The corpus callosum allows communication between the left and right
hemispheres of the brain, facilitating the integration of memory
processes across different regions.
 Reticular Formation
• Location: Brainstem.
• Role in Memory:
• The reticular formation is involved in
maintaining consciousness and regulating
the flow of information between the
brainstem and other parts of the brain.
• It plays a role in attention, which is
necessary for encoding new memories
and retrieving them when needed.